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UCSB   LIBRARY 


THE    FORCING-BOOK 


d5ar&cn  ••  Craft  &r  rir  0 


THE  HORTICULTURIST'S  RULE  BOOK 
THE  NURSERY  -BOOK 
PLANT  BREEDING 
THE  FORCING  -BOOK 
THE  PRUNING  -BOOK 
GARDEN  -MAKING 
THE  PRACTICAL  GARDEN-  BOOK 
Others  in  preparation 


THE 

FORCING-BOOK 


A    MANUAL 

OF    THE    CULTIVATION  OF    VEGETABLES 
IN   GLASS   HOUSES 


BY 

L.   H.    BAILEY 


ELEVENTH  EDITION 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY' 

LONDON:    MACMILLAN   &   CO..  LTD. 

1914 
All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT  1897 
Bv  L.  H.  BAILEY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped,  February,  1897 

Reprinted   November,  1897,  November,  1899,  July,  1901,  June, 

1903.  January,  1906.  January,  1908,  July.  1910,  January,  1911, 

January,  1913,  June,  1914 


£*Ira0ant 

HAHKISBUKG    •    PENN 


PREFACE. 

ONE  of  the  most  interesting  and  significant  evidences 
of  the  abiding  expansion  of  horticultural  business  is  the 
evolution  of  the  glass  house  within  the  present  century. 
It  is  only  within  the  last  one  or  two  generations  that 
the  growing  of  plants  in  glass  houses  for  the  purpose 
of  selling  the  product  of  bloom  or  of  fruit  has  come 
to  be  important  and  widespread.  The  most  recent  part 
of  the  expansion,  at  least  in  this  country,  is  the  com- 
mercial growing  of  winter  vegetables.  It  speaks  well 
for  the  prosperity  and  refinement  of  our  people  when 
they  are  willing  and  able  to  purchase  freely  of  the 
delicacies  of  the  winter  garden.  This  is  one  of  those 
branches  of  agriculture  which  demands  the  nicest  skill 
and  the  closest  fellowship  with  plants.  It  is,  therefore, 
one  in  which  comparatively  few  people  are  fitted  to 
engage,  but  it  must,  from  the  very  force  of  civilization, 
be  one  of  those  occupations  which  shall  gain  impetus 
with  time.  If  it  is  a  business  which  demands  much 
care  and  pains,  then  its  promoters  must  be  students. 
They  will  need  helps.  It  is  this  thought  which  has 
produced  this  book. 

The    writer  must    hasten  to    say  —  what  the    attentive 

reader    will    soon    discover  —  that     he    cannot    consider 

himself  to    be    an    authority  upon    the  subject.      It    has 

happened  that  he  has  been  associated  with  considerable 

(v) 


PREFACE. 

experimental  work  in  the  forcing  of  vegetables  during 
the  past  few  years,  and  he  has  endeavored  to  see 
much  of  the  forcing  industry  of  the  country.  In  this 
time  there  has  been  a  great  accumulation  of  informa- 
tion and  of  notes  which,  since  there  is  no  adequate 
literature  upon  the  subject,  he  has  now  set  down  in 
these  pages.  The  book  has  been  written  for  the  com- 
mercial grower  of  winter  vegetables,  but  the  writer  will 
be  glad  if  it  shall  lead  anyone  to  make  the  effort  to 
grow  the  vegetables  for  his  own  table.  The  very  ob- 
stacles which  one  must  overcome  make  the  effort  all 
the  more  worth  the  while ;  and  the  satisfaction  of 
growing  a  garden  when  the  snow  lies  deep  against  the 
house  is  of  the  keenest  and  most  unselfish  kind. 

The  American  writing  upon  vegetable-forcing  is  very 
recent.  I  have  referred  to  most  of  it  at  various  places 
in  the  text.  It  only  remains  to  say  that  the  basis  of 
much  of  this  book  is  the  series  of  publications  from 
the  Cornell  Experiment  Station ;  and  it  is  justice  that 
I  add  a  list  of  these  papers.  This  list  will  also  aid 
the  student  in  tracing  the  bibliography  of  the  literature 
of  the  forcing  of  plants.  The  Cornell  bulletins  upon 
the  forcing  of  vegetables  in  glass  houses  (some  of 
which  are  permanently  out  of  print)  are  these :  No.  28, 
Experiments  in  the  Forcing  of  Tomatoes,  June,  1891  ; 
No.  30,  Some  Preliminary  Studies  of  the  Influence  of 
the  Electric  Arc  Light  upon  Greenhouse  Plants,  August, 
1891  ;  No.  31,  Forcing  of  English  Cucumbers,  Septem- 
ber, 1891  ;  No.  41,  On  the  Comparative  Merits  of  Steam 
and  Hot  Water  for  Greenhouse  Heating,  August,  1892 ; 
No.  42,  Second  Report  upon  Electro-Horticulture,  Sep- 
(vi) 


tember,  1892  ;  No.  43,  Some  Troubles  of  Winter  To- 
matoes, September,  1892  ;  No.  53,  CEdema  of  the  To- 
mato, May,  1893  ;  No.  55,  Greenhouse  Notes  (Third 
Report  upon  Electro-Horticulture,  Winter  Cauliflowers, 
Second  Report  upon  Steam  and  Hot  Water  Heating), 
July,  1893 ;  No.  94,  Damping-Off,  May,  1895  ;  No.  95, 
Winter  Muskmelons,  June,  1895  ;  No.  96,  Forcing-House 
Miscellanies  (Remarks  upon  the  Heating  of  Forcing- 
Houses,  Lettuce,  Celery  Under  Glass,  Cress  in  Winter, 
Forcing  Eggplants,  Winter  Peas,  Bees  in  Greenhouses, 
Methods  of  Controlling  Greenhouse  Pests  by  Fumiga- 
tion, Treatment  of  Carnation  Rust),  June,  1895. 

Whilst  this  manual  discusses  only  the  forcing  of 
kitchen-garden  vegetables,  the  essential  principles  which 
are  set  forth  apply  with  almost  equal  directness  to  the 
forcing  of  plants  for  their  bloom.  It  should  be  added, 
also,  that  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  book  to  treat  only 
those  crops  which  are  raised  to  maturity  in  glass  houses, 
so  that  the  starting  of  plants  for  setting  in  the  open, 
and  all  questions  of  hotbeds  and  coldframes,  are 
omitted. 

L.    H.    BAILEY. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y.,  January  i,  1897 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   I. 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY  SUGGESTIONS i  to  15 

General  Remarks i 

Specific  Remarks 4 

The  Category  of  Forcing  Crops 4 

Locations  for  Vegetable  Forcing 8 

Cost  of  Heat  and  Labor 9 

CHAPTER   II. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  FORCING-HOUSE  ....  16  to  48 

Types  and  Forms  of  Houses              16 

Some  of  the  Structural  Details 24 

The  Frame 24 

The  Sash-bar 29 

The  Plate 30 

The  Gutter 33 

Walls 33 

Ventilators 35 

The  Glass  and  Glazing 36 

Beds  and  Benches 40 

Heating 40 

Steam  and  Hot  Water 40 

Piping 43 

Flues  and  Stoves        46 

Cost  of  Forcing-houses 46 

(ix) 


CHAPTER    III. 

PAGE 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FORCING-HOUSE     .    .       .  49  to    92 

Temperatures  for  the  Various  Crops 49 

Soils  for  Forced  Vegetables 50 

The  Question  of  Fertilizers 52 

The  Connecticut  Experiments  with  Tomatoes  .    53 
The  Connecticut  Experiments  with  Lettuce   .    .    61 

On  the  Use  of  Fresh  Stable  Manure 62 

Watering 65 

Watering  by  Sub-irrigation  .        68 

Construction  of  Beds    and    Benches    for    Sub- 
irrigation     .    .        ....    69 

Experiments  with  Lettuce  and  Other  Plants    .    72 

Conclusions 77 

Ventilating  and  Shading 78 

The  Electric  Light  for  Forcing-houses  .   .  .    .    So 

Pollination      Si 

Insects  and  Diseases 83 

Methods   of  Controlling   Greenhouse    Pests    by 
Fumigation  86  to  92 


CHAPTER   IV. 

LETTI-CE 93  to  107 

Temperature 04. 

1-ight ...'..  1  .'!   94 

Beds  and  Benches 94 

Soils 96 

Growing  in  Pots 99 

Sowing  and  Transplanting 101 

A  Grower's  Remarks 102 

Varieties IO4 

Enemies  and  Diseases I0 


CONTENTS.  XI 

CHAPTER  V. 

PACK 

CAULIFLOWER 108  to  114 

Unsuccessful  Experiments 108 

The  Successful  Crops 109 

Subsequent  Experience 114 

CHAPTER  VI. 

RADISH 115  to  126 

Cornell  Experience 115 

Sowing 115 

Soil , 116 

General  Management 117 

Varieties 120 

Washington  Experience 121 

Houses  Adapted  to  Growing  Radishes  .    .    .    .121 

The  Soil     122 

Planting  the  Seed 122 

Varieties  to  Plant 124 

Preparing  the  Crop  for  Market      124 

Approximate  Yields  per  Square  Foot  .  .  .125 
Temperature,  Moisture,  Insects  and  Diseases  .  125 
Summary 126 

CHAPTER   VII. 

ASPARAGUS  AND   RHUBARB 127  to  134 

Asparagus 130 

John  Gardner's  Method 132 

Forcing  in  Hotbeds 132 

Rhubarb      134 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

MISCELLANEOUS  COOL  PLANTS 135  to  152 

Pea 135 

Experiments  at  Cornell , 135 


Xii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Celery 139 

Salads,  Pot-herbs,  and  Mints 141 

Water-cress 14* 

Garden  Cress 142 

Parsley 142 

Spinach 142 

Dandelion 143 

Mustard 143 

Mints 143 

Onion 144 

Beets,  Carrots  and  Turnips 145 

Potato 145 

Pepino 146 

History  and   Description   of  the   Pepino    .    .    .  147 

CHAPTER   IX. 

TOMATO     .   .   .  • 153  to  183 

The  House 153 

Soil  and  Fertilizers 154 

Raising  the  Plants,  and  Bearing  Age 155 

Beds,  Benches  and  Boxes 157 

Training 160 

Watering 161 

Pollination 162 

Second  Crop 166 

Yields  and  Prices   ...  169 

Varieties 172 

Marketing „ 174 

Animal  Parasites 175 

Diseases 177 

CHAPTER   X. 

CUCUMBER 184  to  203 

The  English  Forcing  Type  of  Cucumber 184 

General  Requirements 186 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

CUCUMBER—  PAGE 

Training 188 

Bearing  Age 189 

Varieties 190 

Origin  of  this  Type  of  Cucumber 192 

Pollination— Ill-shaped  Fruits      195 

Crosses ...  199 

Enemies 200 

The  White  Spine  Type  of  Cucumber 201 

CHAPTER  XI. 

MUSKMELON 2O4  tO  224 

The  House 205 

The  Soil 207 

Sowing  and  Transplanting  ...  210 

Training      211 

Pollinating 214 

Varieties     215 

Yields  and  Markets 220 

Insects  and  Diseases      221 

CHAPTER   XII. 

MISCELLANEOUS  WARM   PLANTS 225  to  244 

Bean 225 

Eggplant 228 

Pepper,  or  Capsicum 238 

Cyphomandra 241 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

SUMMARIES  OF  THE    MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  VARIOUS 
CROPS 245  to  259 

INDEX 260 


THE   FORCING-BOOK. 


CHAPTER    I. 
INTRODUCTORY    SUGGESTIONS. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

THE  growing  of  vegetables  under  glass  for  the  winter 
market  is  one  of  the  most  special  and  difficult  of  all  horti- 
cultural operations.  It  is  a  more  uncertain  and  perplexing 
business  than  the  growing  of  cut-flowers,  because  it  is  newer, 
less  understood,  there  are  comparatively  few  varieties  of 
vegetables  particularly  adapted  to  winter  forcing,  and  the 
markets  are  less  extensive  and  more  unstable.  To  succeed 
with  forced  vegetables  requires  great  skill  in  the  manage- 
ment of  glass  houses,  close  attention  to  every  detail,  and 
the  complete  control  of  all  the  conditions  of  plant  growth. 
To  these  requirements  must  be  added  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  markets,  and  the  ability  to  have  the  crop 
ready  at  any  given  time. 

No  amount  of  reading  or  study  can  make  one  a  success- 
ful grower  of  plants  under  glass.  He  must  first  of  all  pos- 
sess a  love  for  the  business,  a  determination  to  surmount 
all  difficulties,  and  especially  the  ability  and  desire  to  give 
personal  attention  to  all  the  details  day  by  day.  Having 
these  requisites,  reading  and  study  will  afford  him  most 
efficient  aid  by  way  of  direction  and  suggestion.  One  who 
reads  horticultural  literature  should  bear  in  mind  the  fact 
that  its  value  depends  very  much  upon  the  reader.  Instruc- 


2  INTRODUCTORY     SUGGESTIONS. 

tions  should  suggest  lines  of  work,  and  should  explain  and 
enforce  the  fundamental  reasons  for  the  various  operations  ; 
but  the  directions  are  not  to  be  rigidly  and  perfunctorily 
applied  to  the  particular  work  in  hand.  The  reader  must 
check  up  the  printed  instructions  with  his  own  experiences. 

Persons  who  succeed  in  the  growing  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables in  the  field  do  not  necessarily  succeed  with  crops 
under  glass.  Success  out  of  doors  is  often  the  result  of 
favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  weather ;  but  under  glass 
the  grower  must  not  only  know  the  conditions  which  the 
plants  require,  but  he  must  actually  create  those  conditions. 
The  skill  of  the  horticulturist  lies  in  his  ability  to  override 
difficulties.  Leonard  Coates,  a  well-known  horticulturist 
of  California,  has  recently  put  this  truth  into  an  aphorism  : 
"Let  the  conditions  be  adverse,  and  his  measure  of  suc- 
cess will  prove  the  man." 

The  person  who  desires  to  grow  vegetables  under  glass 
for  market  must,  first  of  all,  count  up  the  costs  and  the  risks. 
Glass  houses  are  expensive,  and  they  demand  constant 
attention  to  repairs.  They  are  short-lived.  The  humid  at- 
mosphere and  the  high  temperature  engender  decay.  The 
heating  is  the  largest  single  item  of  outlay  in  maintaining 
the  establishment.  Moreover,  it  is  an  item  upon  which  it  is 
impossible  to  economize  by  means  of  reducing  the  tem- 
perature, for  a  reduction  of  temperature  means  delayed 
maturity  of  the  crop  and,  in  the  case  of  warmth-loving 
plants  —  like  cucumbers,  melons  and  tomatoes  —  it  invites 
debility  and  disease.  Labor  is  the  second  great  item  of 
expense  in  maintaining  a  forcing  establishment.  This, 
however,  may  be  economized  if  the  proprietor  is  willing 
to  lengthen  his  own  hours ;  but  economy  which  proceeds 
so  far  that  each  one  of  the  plants  does  not  receive  the 
very  best  of  care,  is  ruinous  in  the  end. 

The  risks  in  the  forcing  of  vegetables  are  great.  In  the 
first  place,  there  are  risks  of  accidents,  as  fire,  frosts  and 
hail.  There  are  risks  of  serious  insect  and  fungous  inva- 
sions. But,  above  all,  there  are  risks  arising  from  lack  of 


PACKING    AND    MARKETING.  3 

experience  and  knowledge.  One  must  discover  the  knack 
of  ventilating,  watering,  heating  and  training  adapted  to 
every  crop,  and  this  can  be  learned  only  by  patient  work 
and  study.  Every  failure  should  stimulate  inquiry,  and  the 
operator  should  not  rest  until  he  has  ascertained  its  cause. 

It  is  imperative  that  the  person  who  desires  to  grow 
vegetables  under  glass  should  begin  in  a  small  way.  Let 
him  begin  with  a  small  house  —  say  20  by  60  feet  —  and 
gradually  feel  his  way,  both  in  the  growing  of  the  plants 
and  in  the  marketing  of  the  product.  If  he  is  successful  in 
a  small  house,  he  need  have  no  hesitation  in  extending  his 
area,  for  it  is  easier  to  control  the  conditions  of  temper- 
ature and  moisture  in  a  large  establishment  than  in  a 
small  one. 

As  a  rule,  in  all  those  industries  in  which  a  very  supe- 
rior product  is  to  be  obtained,  and  in  which  the  risks  are 
great,  the  rewards  are  good  to  those  who  succeed.  Good 
winter  vegetables,  placed  attractively  upon  the  market  at 
timely  occasions,  are  sure  of  ready  sales.  Quite  as  many 
persons  fail  to  market  their  products  successfully  as  to 
grow  them  well.  A  forced  vegetable  is  a  luxury.  It  is  a 
special  product.  Its  sale  depends,  therefore,  very  much 
upon  its  beauty  and  attractiveness.  Every  tomato  and 
melon  should  be  neatly  wrapped  in  clean,  thin  paper,  and 
if  each  wrapper  bear  the  name  and  address  of  the  grower, 
so  much  the  better.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  pack  the 
product  so  that  it  shall  not  wilt,  nor  be  touched  by  frost, 
nor  bruised  or  soiled  in  transit.  In  short,  the  product  must 
be  dainty. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  common  open  market 
is  rarely  profitable  for  winter-forced  vegetables,  unless  they 
are  grown  upon  such  a  large  scale  that  the  grower  controls 
the  market,  rather  than  the  market  the  grower.  The  person 
who  desires  to  make  money  from  these  crops  should  secure 
special  markets  for  them,  either  by  placing  them  directly  in 
the  families  of  the  consumers,  or  consigning  them  to  dealers 
who  have  a  particular  or  fancy  trade  in  such  products.  The 

2    FORC 


4  INTRODUCTORY     SUGGESTIONS. 

choicer  and  rarer  the  product,  the  greater  should  be  the 
care  in  finding  a  market  for  it.  Common  things  are  not 
worth  great  effort  in  the  marketing,  but  uncommon  things 
are  worth  nothing  less  than  such  effort. 

A  dealer  in  hothouse  vegetables  in  New  York  writes  that 
"most  all  forced  vegetables  bring  good  prices  in  winter, 
but  they  must  be  packed  and  shipped  in  first-class  order. 
A  good  many  people  raise  fine  vegetables  in  winter,  but 
they  do  not  understand  the  packing,  and  the  products  are 
spoiled  in  shipping."  The  average  prices  of  forced  vege- 
tables in  the  New  York  market  for  the  winter  of  1895-6 
are  given  me  by  this  dealer,  as  follows: 

Dec.  Jan.  Feb. 

Lettuce per  doz.  .  $o  63  $o  50  $o  50 

Cucumbers   (forcing 

type) per  doz.  .  i  50  2  oo  2  50 

Peppers   .   .   .  per  crate  (i  bus.)  .  $2  oo  to  3  oo  3  50  2  50 

Beans    ....  per  crate  (i  bus.)  .  2  oo  $3  oo  to  5  oo  4  50 

Tomatoes per  Ib.  .  15  to      20  25  20  to  30 

Beans,  in  bundles  of  40 10  to      20  through  the  winter. 

"Chicory,  escarole  and  romain  salads  generally  bring 
good  prices  in  winter."* 

SPECIFIC    REMARKS. 

The  category  of  forcing  crops.— The  vegetables  which 
are  forced  to  edible  maturity  under  glass  are  conveniently 
distributed  into  two  groups,— the  "cool"  plants,  and  the 
"warm"  plants. 

The  cool  plants  are  such  as  thrive  best  in  a  night  tem- 

*  These  three  plants  are  not  properly  forced  vegetables  in  the  sense  of 
being  grown  in  glass  houses,  and  are,  therefore,  not  included  in  this  book 
They  are  grown  in  late  fall,  and  are  bleached  in  cellars  or  in  frames  ;  or 
in  the  case  of  chicory,  the  roots  (raised  from  spring-sown  seeds)  are  dug 
in  the  fall  and  stored  in  a  dark  cellar,  where  the  leaves  soon  start.  The 
hicory  may  also  be  grown  under  benches  much  likeasparagus  if  it  is  kept 
k  m  order  to  bleach  it.  Escarole  is  bleached  endive.  Romain  salad  is 
winter  Cos  lettuce.  Sea-kale  is  often  forced  in  frames  after  the  manner  of 
asparagus,  and  it  might  be  managed  in  the  forcing-house  if  necessary. 


LIST    OF    FORCING    CROPS.  5 

perature  of  55°  or  below,  and  a  day  temperature  of  65°  to 
70°.     The  plants  of  this  category  are  : 

Lettuce, 

Asparagus, 

Rhubarb, 

Cauliflower, 

Pea, 

Carrot, 

Beet, 

Radish, 

Cress,  mustard,  mints,  parsley, 

Onion, 

Spinach, 

Celery, 

Pepino. 

The  warm  plants  demand  a  night  temperature  above  55°, 
and  the  day  temperature  may  run  above  75°  when  the 
weather  is  clear  and  bright.  They  are  : 

Tomato, 

Eggplant, 

Pepper, 

Cucumber, 

Muskmelon, 

Bean, 

Cyphomandra. 

The  above  categories  comprise  about  all  the  species  of 
vegetables  which  are  actually  forced  for  market  in  this 
country,  and  even  of  this  short  list  there  are  a  number  for 
which  the  market  is  so  limited,  or  the  methods  of  grow- 
ing them  so  little  understood,  that  they  really  have  no 
place  in  the  staple  demands  of  the  market.  Vegetables  of 
very  minor  importance  as  a  forced  crop  are  peas,  carrots, 
beets,  cress,  celery,  eggplant,  and  pepper.  In  fact,  there 
are  only  three  staple  commercial  forced  vegetables,  and 
these,  in  the  order  of  their  commercial  importance,  are 
lettuce,  tomatoes,  and  cucumbers. 


6  INTRODUCTORY     SUGGESTIONS. 

It  is  possible  to  grow  any  vegetable  under  glass,  but  it 
is  only  those  products  of  a  perishable  nature  which  can  be 
expected  to  yield  any  degree  of  profit.  Those,  also,  which 
require  a  very  long  season  in  which  to  mature,  and  which 
yield  a  small  amount  of  product  — such  as  beets,  car- 
rots, spinach,  peas  — are  of  little  importance  for  forcing. 
The  Lima  beans  require  a  too  long  season,  and  they 
are  chiefly  consumed  in  the  dry  state  ;  but  the  com- 
mon "string"  beans  are  a  good  forcing  crop.  There 
are  special  reasons  why  some  other  vegetables  are  not 
forced  with  profit.  Cauliflower,  for  example,  is  a  most 
satisfactory  crop  to  grow  under  glass,  but  the  best  heads 
of  the  late  fall  crop  are  so  easily  kept  through  the  winter  in 
cold  storage  as  to  almost  despoil  the  market  for  the  forced 
product.  Spinach  was  once  forced  in  cheap  houses  and  in 
hotbeds  and  coldframes,  but  the  southern-grown  spinach 
now  reaches  the  market  in  perfect  condition  from  the  holi- 
days until  spring.  Radishes  are  more  popular  in  spring 
than  in  midwinter  but  the  demand  for  them  in  early 
spring  is  met  more  by  hotbed-grown  roots  than  by  a  house- 
grown  product.  The  forcing  of  celery  is  practically  un- 
known, having  been  made  a  success,  apparently,  only  in 
an  experimental  way.  Eggplants  require  a  long  season 
and  much  heat  and  care,  and  the  demand  for  them  is  slight 
in  winter.  The  regular  season  of  the  vegetable  is  long, 
beginning  with  those  from  the  Gulf  states  and  ending  with 
the  October  and  even  November  fruits  of  the  north.  The 
pepino  is  little  known,  either  to  growers  or  to  the  market. 
Winter  peppers  —  used  for  the  making  of  "stuffed  pep- 
pers"—  are  in  limited  demand,  and  they  are  readily  shipped 
in  from  the  south.  Winter  muskmelons  are  an  exceed- 
ingly fancy  product,  and  very  difficult  to  grow  with  good 
flavor,  so  the  price  must  be  very  high  to  enable  them  to 
yield  a  profit.  Squashes  and  marrows  can  be  grown  in 
glass  houses,  but  the  plants  require  much  room,  and  the 
product  has  small  commercial  value. 

The  near  future  will  no  doubt  see  many  new  departures 


DEMAND    FOR    FORCED     VEGETABLES.  7 

in  the  forcing  of  vegetables.  The  demand  for  forced  beans 
is  already  fairly  good,  and  is  undoubtedly  destined  to  in- 
crease. The  other  minor  forcing  crops  which  are  probably 
destined  to  receive  greater  attention  are  celery,  asparagus, 
rhubarb,  muskmelon  ;  and  there  may  be  others  which  we  do 
not  now  conceive  of  as  forcing  crops.  With  the  increase 
of  population  and  the  augmentation  of  the  appetite  for 
luxuries  in  the  dietary,  the  forcing  of  vegetables  is  bound 
to  become  an  industry  of  great  importance.  It  is  yet  in  its 
merest  infancy.  It  has  practically  all  arisen,  in  this  country, 
in  twenty  years,  yet  the  demand  for  information  respecting 
it,  in  the  Eastern  states,  is  even  now  very  earnest  and  wide- 
spread. There  is  a  constant  tendency  for  consumers  to 
prefer  a  forced  home-grown  product  to  a  transported  and 
exotic  one.  The  forced  tomatoes  generally  sell  well  in 
the  very  presence  of  the  cheaper  product  shipped  in  from 
Florida.  The  best  consumers  desire  the  product  at  first 
hand  from  the  plant,  and  they  enjoy  the  sentiment  which 
is  attached  to  the  forcing  of  a  plant  into  the  pink  of  perfec- 
tion in  the  very  teeth  of  blizzards.  Whilst  the  author  does 
not  desire  to  urge  anyone  into  the  forcing  of  vegetables, 
he  is  nevertheless  convinced  that  the  business  is  bound  to 
open  up  great  possibilities  in  the  future. 

It  is  generally  best  to  devote  an  entire  house  to  one  kind 
of  crop,  for  every  crop  demands  a  particular  treatment  to 
insure  the  most  profitable  results.  Yet  it  is  often  advisable 
to  grow  an  alternation  or  rotation  of  crops,  in  order  to 
employ  the  house  to  best  advantage,  and  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  the  markets.  Houses  which  are  too  cold  for 
winter  crops  of  tomatoes  or  cucumbers  may  be  devoted  to 
lettuce  or  other  cool  crops  during  the  cold  months,  and  to 
the  warm  crops  in  early  spring  and  summer.  Two  crops  of 
lettuce  during  the  winter  may  be  followed  by  the  White 
Spine  type  of  cucumber  for  spring  and  early  summer. 
Winter  tomatoes  may  often  be  followed  advantageously  by 
cucumbers  or  preceded  by  late  fall  melons.  Vegetables  are 
often  alternated  with  flowers  or  with  plant  stock.  In  the 


8  INTRODUCTORY     SUGGESTIONS. 

famous  "carnation  belt"  of  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania, 
tomatoes  are  largely  grown  as  an  early  spring  crop,  fol- 
lowing the  crops  of  carnation  cuttings. 

Locations  for  vegetable  forcing. —  The  items  which 
chiefly  enter  into  the  choice  of  an  ideal  location  for  the 
forcing  of  vegetables  are  the  transportation  facilities  and 
the  price  of  fuel.  The  operator  makes  his  climate,  and 
mixes  his  soils  to  order.  Yet  a  sunny  climate  is  always  to 
be  preferred,  for  it  is  essential  to  quick  and  sure  results  in 
midwinter  that  there  be  an  abundance  of  direct  sunlight. 
The  severity  of  the  climate  as  respects  cold  is  a  very  minor 
factor,  for  the  operator  is  able,  in  the  construction  and  pro- 
tection of  his  house,  to  make  himself  very  largely  indepen- 
dent of  the  outside  temperature  without  great  additional 
consumption  of  fuel.  Whilst  the  gardener  manufactures 
his  soil,  so  to  speak,  yet  in  certain  crops  (as  in  heading 
lettuce)  it  is  very  important  that  the  soil  of  the  neighbor- 
hood should  be  free  of  hard  clay. 

The  transportation  facilities  are  all-important.  The  pro- 
duct must  reach  the  market  expeditiously,  and  there  should 
be  direct  access  to  several  good  markets.  The  product 
is  not  bulky,  and  the  expense  of  shipping  it  is  not  heavy. 
Distance  from  market,  therefore,  is  a  less  important  factor 
than  frequent  and  expeditious  means  of  shipping.  If  one 
has  a  large  product  to  ship,  the  actual  distance  from  market 
is  of  still  less  moment,  for  the  gardener  can  secure  con- 
cessions on  transportation  rates  ;  but  it  is  nevertheless 
important  that  the  market  be  directly  accessible.  Many 
of  the  large  vegetable  forcers  ship  their  products  two  and 
three  hundred  miles.  All  winter  products  are  shipped 
by  express. 

The  vegetable  forcing  establishments  are  widely  scat- 
tered. The  larger  part  of  them  are  in  the  environs  of  the 
large  cities  of  the  east,  but  many  of  them  are  in  small  cities 
or  villages  several  hours  removed  from  the  markets.  They 
can  often  be  established  with  profit  upon  farms  which  are 
near  one  or  more  good  railway  stations,  and  when  the 


EXPENSE    OF    HEATING    AND    LABOR.  9 

farmer  desires  employment  for  the  winter  months.  Many 
of  the  smaller  cities  —  even  of  twenty  thousand  and  less  — 
afford  a  ready  market  for  a  considerable  quantity  of  lettuce, 
tomatoes  and  cucumbers,  making  it  necessary  to  ship  only 
a  comparatively  small  surplus  to  distant  markets.  A 
home  and  personal  market  is  always  to  be  preferred  to  a 
distant  or  metropolitan  one. 

Cost  of  heat  and  labor. — The  two  important  items  of 
expense  in  the  management  of  a  forcing  structure,  as  al- 
ready said,  are  the  heating  and  the  labor.  It  is  impossible 
to  give  any  exact  estimates  of  the  necessary  outlay  for 
these  items,  because  these  expenses  are  most  intimately 
associated  with  the  exposure,  tightness,  efficiency  of  the 
heating  apparatus,  and  handiness  of  each  particular  house. 
A  single  glass  house,  standing  alone,  is  more  expensive  to 
heat  than  the  same  house  in  a  range  or  nest  of  houses. 
In  central  New  York,  where  the  winters  are  long  and 
severe,  a  detached  house,  20  x  100  ft.  in  ground  area, 
will  generally  require,  for  a  tomato-forcing  temperature, 
from  15  to  20  tons  of  coal  for  the  year,  whether  heated  by 
steam  or  hot  water.  For  a  lettuce-forcing  temperature, 
one-third  less  coal  is  usually  sufficient. 

A  good  workman,  who  is  acquainted  with  the  business, 
should  be  able  to  do  all  the  work  of  growing  tomatoes, 
except  the  firing,  in  two  houses  20x100  ft.  of  ground  sur- 
face. In  lettuce-forcing,  one  man  will  handle  four  times  as 
great  an  area  after  the  plants  are  transplanted.  These 
estimates  assume  that  the  houses  are  convenient,  with 
facilities  for  watering  with  a  hose.  The  larger  the  estab- 
lishment, the  less  proportionate  help  does  it  require,  if  the 
houses  are  so  arranged  that  the  workmen  are  not  required 
to  walk  more  than  50  or  60  feet  from  any  given  point  to 
reach  an  opening  into  another  house,  and  if  they  are  not 
obliged  to  pass  back  and  forth  out  of  doors  while  at  their 
work.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  for  economy  in  both 
heating  and  labor,  a  range  of  two  or  more  parallel  houses 
is  more  satisfactory  than  a  single  house  or  than  several 


IO  INTRODUCTORY     SUGGESTIONS. 

detached  houses.  When,  however,  each  house  is  large 
enough  to  completely  employ  the  labor  of  one  or  two  men, 
the  advantages  of  the  nesting  of  the  houses  is  not  so  great ; 
and  it  may  even  be  better,  in  such  cases,  to  have  the  houses 
entirely  separate,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  hauling  of  earth 
and  other  supplies  into  them. 

Aside  from  the  labor  required  to  grow  the  plants,  the 
operator  must  figure  on  the  cost  of  the  heating.  It  is  imper- 
ative that  the  temperatures  be  kept  fairly  uniform  during  the 
night.  In  fact,  variations  of  temperature  are  usually  more 
hurtful  at  night  than  at  day.  For  the  best  results,  every 
forcing  establishment  should  have  a  night  man  ;  but  such  a 
man  can  not  be  afforded  for  a  small  house.  In  this  case, 
the  gardener  must  place  his  dependence  upon  the  self-regu- 
lating devices  of  the  modern  heaters  ;  but  even  then  he  will 
need  to  give  some  attention  to  his  house  on  very  severe 
nights.  Very  much  depends  upon  the  faithfulness  and 
efficiency  of  the  night  man.  Very  often  the  owner  will  find 
the  temperature  of  the  houses  to  be  ideal  at  bed-time  and 
at  6  in  the  morning,  while,  if  he  had  been  astir  at  4  o'clock, 
he  would  have  found  it  ten  degrees  too  low.  He  would,  if 
he  knew  the  circumstances,  cease  to  wonder  why  his  crops 
were  slow  in  growth  and  always  attacked  by  mildew. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  actual  expenditures  for  heat  and 
labor,  I  have  asked  a  few  of  my  friends  and  correspon- 
dents—  all  wide-awake  commercial  growers  —  to  give  me 
their  judgment  upon  the  quantity  of  coal  required  to  heat 
for  one  year  a  rose  house  of  modern  construction,  20  x  too 
feet  ground  surface,  even  span,  10  ft.  high  at  the  ridge.  I 
also  asked,  "About  how  large  an  establishment  does  it 
require,  in  roses  or  winter  tomatoes,  to  keep  one  good 
workman  busy  during  the  forcing  season,  in  watering,  ven- 
tilating, training,  picking  the  product,  etc.  (not  attending 
to  the  firing)?"  The  answers  to  these  questions  are 
given  below.  Where  the  size  of  the  house  is  not  speci- 
fied, it  is  understood  to  be  20  x  100  ft.,  as  stated  in  the 
problem. 


EXPENSES  FOR  HEAT  AND  LABOR.  II 

ONTARIO — 

1.  I  have  two  tomato  houses,  each  20x200  ft.,    13  ft. 
high  at  the  ridge,  heated  with  steam.     I  used  last  year  no 
tons  of  anthracite  coal. 

One  good  man  will  attend  to  one  house  20x200  ft.,  in 
the  spring.  In  the  winter,  the  man  and  a  boy  can  thor- 
oughly care  for  two  such  houses. 

MASSACHUSETTS — 

2.  For  roses,  using  hot  water,  it  takes  about  18  tons  of 
coal  for  the  year. 

One  man  will  care  for  two  to  three  houses,  if  he  is 
active  and  thorough,  and  keeps  them  clean  and  in  first- 
class  order. 

NEW  YORK — 

3.  I  am  heating  500  lineal  feet  of  rose  house,  20  ft.  wide 
and  ii  ft.  high,  at  a  cost  (last  year)  of  $333.     This  is  about 
65  cents  per  lineal  foot.     The  system  is  hot  water  in  small 
pipes. 

For  roses,  a  good  man  should  manage  400  lineal  feet 
of  a  house  20  ft.  wide. 

4.  I  should  estimate  12  tons  of  coal.     This  is  about  my 
actual  outlay  in  the  winter  of  1895-6. 

A  man  should  handle  8,000  or  10,000  sq.  ft.  of  glass, 
in  roses. 

5.  I  have  about    15,000  square   feet  of  glass,    in    ten 
houses.     I   grow    roses,    carnations,   violets,  plants,   etc. 
Four  of  my  own  family,  including  myself,  work  in  the 
houses,  and  I  usually  keep  one  man  besides.     Outside  of 
my  own  family,  it  costs  me  about  $2,000  a  year  to  run 
my  place, —  for  coal,  help,  repairs,  water  rent,  taxes,  bulbs, 
insurance,  lumber  for  boxes,  and  all    other  incidentals. 
My  houses  are  in  good  condition,  and  I  keep  the  place  in 
first-class  order. 

6.  I  judge  that  a  single  rose  house  20x100  ft.,  in  this 
climate  (Mohawk  Valley),  kept  at  rose-forcing  tempera- 
ture, would  take  about  25  tons  of  anthracite  coal  a  year. 


12  INTRODUCTORY     SUGGESTIONS. 

In  a  nest  or  block  of  several  houses,  the  heating  could 
probably  be  done  with  20  tons. 

In  rose-forcing,  a  careful  and  industrious  man  can  take 
care  of  about  10,000  sq.  ft.  of  glass.  With  a  smart  boy 
for  weeding  and  cleaning  up,  he  could  handle  5,000  ft. 
more. 

7.  To  keep  an  average  temperature  of  60°,  for  roses,  by 
steam,  would  require  about  18  tons  of  hard  coal.     Much 
will  depend  upon  the  boiler,  the  placing  of  the  radiating 
surface,  and  the  carefulness  of  the  fireman. 

With  things  conveniently  arranged,  one  smart  man 
could  care  for  a  rose  house  20  ft.  wide  and  250  to  300  ft. 
long. 

8.  I  grow  violets,  and  heat  with  water.     I  use  60  to  70 
tons  of  hard  coal  for  15,000  sq.  ft.  of  glass. 

MICHIGAN— 

9.  With  coal  at  $2.75  per  ton,  and  including  fireman's 
wages,  it  will  cost  anywhere  from  $75  to  $125  per  year, 
depending  upon  the  efficienry  of  the  boiler  and  the  sever- 
ity of  the  season. 

Much  depends  upon  the  handiness  of  the  place,  and  how 
neat  the  proprietor  wants  to  keep  his  house.  For  the 
most  thorough  care,  one  man  can  manage,  of  roses,  5,000 
to  6,000  sq.  ft.  of  glass. 

10.  Last  season,  I  used  8^    tons  of  Hocking  Valley 
lump  coal  per  1,000  sq.  ft.  of  glass  for  roses,  and  6l/z  tons 
for  carnations  and  violets  mixed.     I  use  steam. 

If  a  man  is  not  bothered  by  visitors  he  can  care  for 
two  rose  houses  20  x  125  ft.  If  this  amount  of  glass  were 
in  four  houses,  he  could  not  care  for  it  well. 

11.  If  built  in  a  range  of  say  ten  houses,  heated  with 
steam,  it  would  require  for  each  house  about  18  tons  of 
soft  (lump)  coal.     In  a  smaller  range,  the  heating  would 
cost  more. 

One  good  man  can  care  for  two  such  houses  ;  or  if 
help  is  furnished  occasionally  and  no  propagating  is 
done,  more  glass  can  be  cared  for. 


EXPENSES  FOR  HEAT  AND  LABOR.  13 

MINNESOTA  — 

12.  In  one  season  I  used  470  tons  of  Illinois  coal  (cost- 
ing $1,424)  in  four  houses  16x200  ft.,  four  houses  i6x  100 
ft. ,  and  nine  houses  20  x  90  ft.     The  next  season  I  added 
two  houses  35x200  ft.   each,  and  then  used  850  tons, 
costing  $3,238.     By  rearranging  the  steam  pipes,  I  heated 
these  same  houses  the  following  two  winters  with   649 
tons  and  608  tons  respectively. 

INDIANA — 

13.  I  use  natural  gas,  and  cannot  give  figures. 

One  good  man  should  attend  to  four  such  houses,  if  he 
has  help  for  four  weeks  in  planting,  etc. 

14.  A  three-fourths  span  house,  20  ft.  wide  and  n   ft. 
high,  in  an  exposed  place,  cost  us  in  1895-6  at  the  rate  of 
$89.04  for  a  house  100  ft.  long  (coal  $2  per  ton).     We  can 
reduce  this  figure  somewhat  by  careful  management.     An 
equal  span,  20  ft.   wide  and   10  ft.  high,  cost  us  about 
$35.20  per  loo  ft.     This  house  is  on  the  sheltered  side  of 
the  range.     (This  correspondent  is  on  the  Ohio  river.) 

One  good  workman  should  attend  to  about  five  such 
houses,  in  roses. 
ILLINOIS — 

15.  It  cost  me  last  winter  (1895-6)  tor  coal,  for  rose 
house  2oxiooft., — as  nearly  as  I  can  figure  the  propor- 
tion,—$50,  with  soft  coal  at  $2.30  per  ton,  and  the  use  of 
some  slack  at  75  cents  and  $i    per  ton.     This  house  is 
three-fourths  span  and  12  ft.  high. 

In  my  place,  where  cut  flowers  and  pot  plants  are  both 
handled,  and  with  a  retail  trade  to  wait  on,  it  requires 
about  one  man  to  a  house  20  x  100  ft.     If  I  were  growing 
only  roses,  I  should  not  need  so  much  help. 
PENNSYLVANIA — 

16.  Such  a  house  in  roses  here  (Philadelphia)  would 
require  about  12  tons  of  pea  coal  at  $3.25,  or  9  tons  of 
larger  size  at  $5.50. 

An  experienced  rose  grower  ought  to  manage  5,000 


,4  INTRODUCTORY     SUGGESTIONS. 

sq.  ft.  of  glass.     If  a  variety  of  stuff  is  grown,  twice  the 
help  is  necessary. 

17.  With  hot  water,  15  tons  egg  hard  coal. 

One  good  man  should  give  good  results  in  two  houses 
20  x  100  ft. 

1 8.  I  burn  on  an  average   200  tons  of  hard   coal  per 
year  to  heat  ten  houses  9  x  100  ft.,  8  ft.  to  ridge,  and  four 
houses    21  x  140    ft.,    10  ft.   to   ridge.      Temperature    at 
night,  50°  to  60°. 

I  want  one  man  to  each  5,000  sq.  ft.,  if  there  is  little 
potting  to  do. 

19.  In  tomato  growing,  it  costs  me  about  $50  per  year 
for  such  a  house,  with  coal  at  $3.30  per  ton. 

One  spry  workman  should  do  the  work  in  two  tomato 
houses  20  x  100  ft. 

20.  Two  houses  20  x  100  ft.   of  tomatoes  will  keep  one 
man  occupied.     As  usually  heated   hereabouts  ["Carna- 
tion belt,"  Chester  county],  the  firing  could  be  done  by 
the  same  person  if  he  is  an  interested  participant  in  the 
crop  returns.     The  tomato  ranges  are  usually  two  or  four 
houses  heated  with   hot  water  circulation,   and   seldom 
require  re-coaling  during  the  night. 

21.  I  have  had  no  experience  with  growing  roses.     With 
carnations  I  find  that  it  takes  about  5  tons  (long)  coal  for 
i,ooo  feet  of  glass.     Some  winters  rather  more,  but  mostly 
less.     I  find  it  takes  about  this,  no  matter  what  system  of 
heating  is  used  (flue  or  hot  water),  if  used  with  all  care' 
in  both  cases.     But  by  using  pea  coal  in  our  horizontal 
tubular  boiler  we  effect  a  saving  in  cost,  as  it  takes  little 
or  no  more  pea  coal  than  it  does  broken  or  egg. 

In  our  business  it  takes  about  one  man  to  5,000  sq.  ft. 
of  glass,  during  the  forcing  season. 
NEW  JERSEY— 

22.  My  rose  house,  20x80  ft.,  consumes  about  9  or  10 
tons  of  coal  yearly. 

Two  houses,  20  x  too  ft.,  are  enough  for  one  man  in  rose 
growing,  and  he  should  have  a  boy  to  assist  him  in  busy 


EXPENSES  FOR  HEAT  AND  LABOR.  7$ 

times.      In  large   establishments,   two  men   working  to- 
gether can  turn  off  as  much  as  three  men  working  alone 
in  small  establishments. 
KENTUCKY— 

23.  For  ordinary  winters  (southwestern  Kentucky),  250 
bus.  coal  at  10  cents.     For  severe  winters,  350  bus. 

One  man  will  care  for  three  such  houses. 
WASHINGTON — 

24.  To  heat  a  20  x  150  ft.  house,  three-fourths  span,  10  ft. 
high,  for  tomatoes,  will  cost  here  (Seattle)  about  $50  per 
year  with  4-ft.  fire  wood  at  $i  per  cord.     I  use  steam. 

Two  men  will  take  care  of  the  crops  and  do  the  firing 
for  two  houses  20x112  ft.,  one  house  52x150  ft.,  one 
house  20x150  ft.,  and  three  houses  20x80  ft. 


NOTE. — The  reader  will  find  tables  for  computing  the  radiating  and 
grate  surfaces  in  the  heating  of  glasshouses,  and  other  greenhouse 
matter,  in  the  last  edition  of  The  Horticulturist's  Rule-Book. 


CHAPTER    II. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION   OF    THE  FORCING-HOUSE. 

IT  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  most  particu- 
lar attention  be  given  to  the  construction  of  the  forcing- 
house,  for  it  is  by  means  of  this  structure  that  the  gar- 
dener is  to  make  and  maintain  the  climate  in  which  his 
crops  are  to  be  grown.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  book, 
however,  to  give  a  manual  of  instructions  for  the  building 
of  glass  houses,  but  it  may  be  advisable  to  make  a  few 
summary  statements  respecting  some  of  the  features  which 
are  particularly  useful  to  forcing-houses,  and  then  refer  the 
reader  to  other  treatises  for  more  detailed  instruction.* 

TYPES  AND   FORMS   OF   HOUSES. 

Forcing-houses  should  be  of  the  simplest  possible  con- 
struction. Every  feature  in  their  make-up  should  be  char- 
acterized by  directness.  The  walks  and  benches  should  be 
straight  and  of  uniform  width.  The  greatest  possible 
amount  of  space  should  be  reserved  for  the  actual  grow- 
ing of  the  plants,  by  making  the  walks  narrow  (not  more 
than  two  feet  in  most  commercial  houses)  and  by  carrying 
the  heating  pipes  and  construction  timbers  out  of  the  reach 
of  the  plants  to  be  grown.  The  side  walls  of  forcing-houses 

"The  best  current  American  text  upon  the  subject  is  Taft's  "Green- 
house Construction,"  published  by  the  Orange  Judd  Co.  The  reader 
may  also  find  some  suggestions  upon  these  and  similar  topics  in  Wink- 
ler's  "Vegetable  Forcing,"  Columbus,  O.,  1896;  and  also  in  Dreer's 
"Vegetables  Under  Glass,"  which  comes  to  hand  just  as  these  pages 
are  going  through  the  press. 

(16) 


REQUIREMENTS    OF    A    FORCING-HOUSE. 


are  only  high  enough  to  allow  of  room  for  the  plants  to  be 
grown  under  the  glass,  or,  in  the  case  of  shed-houses,  to 
give  a  proper  slope  to  the  roof.  It  is  a  common  practice  to 
secure  head  room  in  the  forcing-house  by  sinking  the  walks 
below  the  ground  level.  In  this  way,  the  house  is  kept  low, 
thus  saving  in  cost  of  construction  and 'in  exposure  to  winds. 
Such  sunken  walks  are  shown  in  Figs,  i  and  3  (pages  17  and 
18).  It  is  always  handier,  however,  to  have  the  main  walks 
on  a  level  with  the  surface,  thus  avoiding  steps  in  passing  to 
and  from  the  establishment.  In  wet  or  springy  ground  it  is 


/.    A  simple  even-span,  10  feet  wide. 

important  to  avoid  sinking  the  house.  The  roof  of  the 
forcing-house  should  be  as  flat  as  is  consistent  with  the 
ready  shedding  of  rain  and  snow,  in  order  that  all  the 
plants  may  grow  close  under  the  roof;  for  it  should  be 
said  that  plants  are  usually  more  stocky  and  productive 
and  healthy  when  grown  near  the  glass.  The  house  should 
be  of  the  lightest  possible  construction  in  order  to  gain 
sunlight,  particularly  if  tomatoes,  melons,  cauliflowers  and 
other  sun-loving  plants  are  to  be  grown. 

There  are  three  general  types  or  shapes  of  houses  in 
common  use  for  the  forcing  of  vegetables.     These  are  :  The 


ifl 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


roof  with  an  even  span,  those  with  a  lean-to  or  true  shed 

roof,  and  those  with  an 
uneven  or  broken  roof. 
These  various  types  of 
houses  are  illustrated  in 
the  accompanying  dia- 
grams. Figs,  i  and  2 
show  the  ordinary  types 
of  an  even-span  house, 
2.  A  simple  two-walk  even-span  house,  pjgs  ,  an(j  ^  (page  19) 

forms  of  an  uneven  or 

broken  span,  and  Figs.  5,  6  and  7  (pages  20,  21  and  22),  of 
a  lean-to  or  shed  house.  The  older  type  of  forcing-house 
was  rather  narrow  in  proportion  to  its  width  ;  that  is,  it 
was  rarely  more  than  20  feet  wide,  whilst  the  length  might 
vary  from  50  to  300  feet.  A  house  of  this  width  is  propor- 
tionately more  difficult  to  heat  and  to  manage  than  one  of 
greater  width,  and  the  tendency  at  the  present  time  is  to- 
wards much  wider  houses,  especially  in  establishments 
where  a  large  product  is  expected  to  be  grown.  The  wide 
house,  however,  when  built  with  a  gable  roof,  becomes  too 


3.    A  broken  or  uneven  span,  20  feet  wide,  on  a  side  hill. 

high  to  admit  of  economical  construction  and  heating,  and 
the  plants  are  also  too  far  removed  from  the  glass  for 
best  results.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  in  these  very 


NESTING    OF     HOUSES.  K) 

wide  houses,  to  treat  the  building  as  a  shed,  and  to  take 
extra  care  in  making  the  roof  strong  and  tight. 

A  single  house,  standing  by  itself,  is  always  more  difficult 
and  expensive  to  heat  and  to  manage  than  a  range  of  houses. 
It  is,  therefore,  very  important  that  houses  should  not  only 
be  heated,  so  far  as  possible,  from  one  central  system,  but 
also  that  the  houses  should  lie  alongside  of  each  other  so 
that  the  interior  walls  may  answer  for  two  houses,  and  that 
one  house  may  protect  another  from  sweeping  winds.  For 


4.    A  broken  roof  on  the  Itvel,  18  feet 
center  bench. 


ide,  with  sloping 


purposes  of  convenience  in  repairing  the  roof,  and  to  avoid 
injury  by  snow,  it  is  better  to  have  these  parallel  houses 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  space  or  alley  of  two  or 
three  feet ;  but  inasmuch  as  this  doubles  the  number  of 
walls  and  exposes  every  wall  to  the  weather,  this  method 
of  construction  is  rarely  used  for  small  houses  in  this 
country.  Two  contiguous  houses  are  allowed  to  rest  upon 
a  common  wall,  but  the  gutter  between  the  two  is  made 
deep  and  wide  so  that  the  water  may  be  carried  off  quickly, 
and  a  workman  may  walk  through  it  when  repairing  or 
painting  the  roof.  In  the  case  of  very  large  houses,  how- 
ever (say  those  35  ft.  or  more  wide  and  200  ft.  or  more 
3  FORC. 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


long),  which  are  large 
enough  to  make  and  control 
their  own  temperature  and 
to  employ  all  the  time  of  a 
man,  it  is  probably  better, 
for  the  sake  of  the  conve- 
nience of  hauling  to  and  from 
them  and  the  ease  of  repair- 
ing the  roofs,  to  have  them 
separated  from  other  houses 
by  a  space  two  or  three  rods, 
or  more,  wide. 

It  is  probably  true  that 
the  best  direction  or  expos- 
ure for  an  even-span  house 
is  from  north  to  south,  be- 
cause both  sides  of  the  struc- 
ture then  receive  an  equal 
amount  of  sunlight  during 
the  twenty-four  hours.  It  is 
not  always  practicable,  how- 
ever, to  run  the  houses  north 
and  south,  and  when  it  is 
not,  it  is  better  to  run  them 
directly  east  and  west,  and 
to  break  the  roof  into  un- 
even spans.  Just  which  span 
should  face  the  south,  whether 
the  long  one  or  the  short 
one,  is  a  matter  of  dispute. 
It  probably  depends  very 
largely  upon  the  kind  of 
plants  to  be  grown,  and 
the  slope  of  the  land,  and 
upon  the  exact  exposure  ; 
but  it  is,  no  doubt,  true  that, 
for  general  conditions,  the 


THE    SHED    ROOF    HOUSE. 


22  THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


HOUSES    TO    BE    RECOMMENDED. 


long  span  should  face  the 
sun.  The  short-span-to-the- 
south  greenhouse,  of  which 
much  has  been  said  in  recent 
years,  is  built  with  a  very 
steep,  short  south  roof,  with 
the  purpose  of  intercepting 
nearly  all  the  sun's  rays  and 
carrying  them  directly  back 
into  the  farthermost  corners 
of  the  house.  Where  high 
plants  are  to  be  grown  near 
the  front  of  the  house,  how- 
ever, so  much  shade  is  cast 
upon  the  rear  plants  as  to 
seriously  interfere  with  their 
growth.  These  houses  have 
not  yet  come  into  general 
use  for  vegetable  forcing, 
and  they  need  not  be  fur- 
ther considered  in  this  sum- 
mary account. 

Of  the  various  houses 
which  are  represented  in  the 
accompanying  illustrations, 
Fig.  i  is  the  least  satisfac- 
tory for  forcing  purposes,  be- 
cause of  its  narrowness.  In 
such  slim  houses  there  is 
not  a  sufficient  body  of  air 
to  guard  against  rapid  fluc- 
tuations of  temperature. 
They  cool  off  quickly ;  and 
with  variations  in  temper- 
ature there  arise  serious 
difficulties  with  insects  and 
fungi.  Fig.  2  is  an  excellent 


24  THE   CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE   FORCING-HOUSE. 

house  for  a  small  or  ordinary  establishment,  and  is  a  good 
type  for  the  beginner.  The  same  remarks  may  be  made  for 
Fig.  3,  except  that  the  unequal  elevations  of  the  walks  and 
beds  make  it  unhandy.  Such  a  side-hill  house,  however, 
brings  the  glass  very  close  to  the  greatest  number  of 
plants, —  a  result  which  is  sometimes  sought  by  elevat- 
ing the  benches  in  the  center  of  even-span  houses,  but 
this  raises  the  beds  so  high  as  to  make  them  awkward. 
Fig.  4  is  an  excellent  type  of  house.  Figs.  5,  6  and  7  are 
probably  the  best  types  for  very  large  establishments. 
Fig.  7  (page  22)  covers  the  entire  back  yard  of  a  city  lot. 
These  shed  roofs  are  most  easy  to  build  and  to  keep  in 
repair.  The  absence  of  gutters  is  a  most  important  feature, 
for  the  gutter  is  the  part  of  the  frame  which  is  most  difficult 
to  properly  construct  and  which  generally  soonest  gives  out. 
It  is  advisable,  in  cases  where  an  entire  range  or  nest  of 
houses  is  to  be  permanently  used  for  one  given  crop,  to  omit 
entirely  the  side  walls,  and  to  simply  place  the  plates  and 
gutters  on  the  tops  of  posts  or  pillars,  allowing  the  spaces 
between  the  posts  to  remain  open.  This  construction  results 
in  throwing  the  whole  range  into  practically  a  single  house, 
keeping  the  structure  low,  with  considerable  economy  of 
heat  and  labor.  Such  a  construction  is  never  admissible, 
however,  when  it  is  expected  that  the  different  houses  of 
the  range  are  to  be  used  for  the  growing  of  plants  re- 
quiring different  degrees  of  heat  and  moisture.  The 
range  of  nine  houses  shown  at  the  left  in  Fig.  8  (page 
23)  are  open  beneath  the  gutters  in  this  way,  and  Fig.  9 
(page  25)  is  a  crosswise  view  in  them.  The  reader  sees 
a  gutter  near  the  top  of  the  picture,  with  a  steam  pipe 
running  along  the  plate,  and  the  man  is  sitting  under  the 
second  gutter. 

SOME  OK  THE  STRUCTURAL  DETAILS. 

The  frame.— The  framing  of  a  forcing-house  is  well 
explained  by  Figs.  10  and  n  (pages  26  and  27).  These 
pictures  represent  the  common  rafter-and-sash-bar  house. 


THE   PARTITION   WALLS    OMITTED.  25 


26  THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

In  Fig.  10  the  r?fters  are  m  place,  and  on  the  further 
half  the  sash-bars  have  been  put  in  between  them,  being 
toe-nailed  at  the  upper  end  to  headers  cut  in  between 
the  rafters.  The  space  above  these  headers  is  to  be  cov- 
ered by  the  ventilator  sash. 

It  is  very  doubtful,  however,  if  it  is  ever  necessary  to  use 


10      Putting  uf>  a  rafter-and-sash  bar  house. 

rafters  in  the  construction  of  a  forcing-house.  The  entire 
roof  should  be  built  wholly  of  sash-bars,  which  run  from  the 
ill  or  the  plate  to  the  peak,  as  shown  in  Figs.  12  and  13 
(pages  28  and  29).  This  construction  admits  the  greatest 
amount  of  light  to  the  house,  and  is  also  less  expensive. 
If  purlines  of  steam  pipe  are  freely  used  upon  which  to  rest 


THE     FRAMEWORK. 


27 


the  sash-bars,  each  bar  being  secured  to  the  purline  by  a 
loop  of  strap  iron,  the  house  may  be  made  as  stiff  as 
the  old-time  rafter-built  frame.  Fig.  14  (page  31)  shows  the 
interior  of  Figs.  12  and  13.  The  house  (used  for  tomatoes) 
is  24  feet  wide,  1 1  feet  high  at  the  ridge  and  4  feet  at  the 
eaves,  with  sash-bars  13  feet  long.  These  bars  have  a  body 
measure  of  i^xi)4  inches,  and  carry  glass  14x24  inches. 
They  are  supported  in  the  center  by  a  1%-mch  pipe.  A 


//.     Construction  of  a  rafter-and-sash-bar  frame. 


row  of  these  pipe  supports  upon  either  side  of  the  house  is 
the  only  intermediate  support  which  the  roof  receives  ;  yet 
this  house  stands  in  an  exposed  place  and  has  withstood 
several  severe  gales  without  the  slightest  injury.  A  similar 
sash-bar  construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  15  (page  32).  Another 
is  seen  in  Fig.  16  (page  34),  but  in  this  case  the  bars  are 
nailed  to  wooden  plates  which  rest  upon  pipe  supports. 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


THE    DETAILS    OF   THE    SASH-BAR.  2Q 

The  sash-bar. — There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  re- 
specting the  best  form  of  sash-bar.  Common  types  are 
shown,  half  natural  size,  in  Fig.  17  (page  35).  The  shoul- 
ders at  the  top  are  to  receive  the  edges  of  the  panes  of 
glass.  The  cap  upon  the  sample  at  the  right  is  to  hold 
the  glass  in  place  when  the  panes  are  butted,  a  matter  to 
be  explained  shortly.  The  grooves  in  the  sides  of  the 
bars  are  designed  to  catch  the  water  which  condenses  on 
the  glass,  carrying  it  down  to  the  plate,  and  thereby 
preventing  the  "drip." 

For  myself,  after  long  study  of  glass  houses,  I  am  con- 
vinced that  this  groove  has  little  if  any  value.  It  weakens 
the  bar  and  adds  to  its  cost.  It  rarely  catches  all  or  even 
most  of  the  water,  for  the  condensation  flows  downwards 
off  the  pane,  and  not  sidewise.  It  is  said  that  the  condensa- 
tion may  be  carried  into  the  grooves  by  taking  care  tc  lay 


13.    Houses  with  sash-bar  frames . 

the  crowning  side  of  the  pane  up,  thereby  having  the  hollow 
side  underneath  ;  but  good  glass  should  have  very  little  or 
no  crown,  and  it  is  rarely  possible  to  make  sufficient  slant 
towards  the  bar  to  carry  the  water  to  it.  But  I  should  con- 


30  THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

sider  the  draining  of  the  water  into  the  groove  to  be  the 
very  thing  to  be  avoided,  for  it  is  then  discharged  at  the 
bottom  of  the  bar  into  the  joint  with  the  plate,  and  hastens 
decay  in  one  of  the  very  weakest  points  in  the  frame.  I  now 
use  entirely  a  perfectly  plain  sash-bar,  which  is  "  run  "  from 
white  pine  at  the  home  mill.  Its  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  18 
(page  35).  For  ordinary  roofs,  and  glass  not  more  than  12 
inches  wide,  these  bars  may  be  i  x  \y2  or  itf  x  i^  inches  in 
body  measure.  The  illustration  shows  a  cross-section  of  a 
heavy  bar,  at  one-half  natural  size.  In  lots  of  1,000  lineal 
feet,  this  bar  costs  us  the  price  of  the  lumber  plus  |4  for 
"running."  If  the  grooves  were  added,  the  cost  of  "run- 
ning" would  be  about  $6.  In  large  quantities,  these  prices 
could  be  much  reduced.  In  very  wide  roofs  of  little  slope, 
and  especially  when  very  large  glass  (18  to  20  inches  wide) 
is  used,  a  bar  2x3  inches  is  safest  and  best.  Such  bars  will 
hold  a  man's  weight.  If  the  house  is  properly  glazed, 
there  will  be  no  "drip"  of  consequence. 

The  plate. — Perhaps  the  shortest  lived  part  of  the  frame 
of  the  ordinary  glass  house  is  the  plate  at  the  eaves.  Much 
of  the  condensation  upon  the  glass  finds  its  way  to  the  plate, 
and  if  the  glass  is  butted,  all  the  condensation  strikes  it 
which  does  not  fall  in  "drip."  In  the  very  wide  shed  roof  or 
broken-roof  houses,  the  front  plate  (upon  the  lower  wall) 
receives  nearly  all  the  roof  drainage,  and  this  is  the  one, 
therefore,  to  be  chiefly  protected.  The  plate,  therefore, 
soon  decays  unless  the  greatest  care  is  taken  to  give  it  a 
bold  slant,  and  to  keep  it  well  painted.  Fig.  19  (page  36) 
shows  an  excellent  plate,  half-size,  cut  from  a  pine  or  cy- 
press stick.  A  plate  with  half  the  slope  of  the  side  A  B  will 
still  hold  the  water  in  globules  and  miniature  pools,  partic- 
ularly after  the  paint  has  begun  to  blister.  In  order  to 
prevent  the  water  from  following  back  on  the  plate  and 
keeping  the  wall  wet,  a  groove  like  that  at  a,  a,  in  Figs. 
20  and  25  (pages  37  and  39),  is  useful.  A  similar  one  on 
the  outside  of  the  plate  will  keep  the  rain  from  following 
down  the  wall.  If  the  drip  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  plate 


FRAMEWORK   OF   A   TOMATO    HOUSE. 


32  THE   CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


THE  PLATE  AND  THE  GUTTER.  33 

is  annoying,  it  may  be  caught  in  a  little  trough  and  carried 
away.  The  best  trough  for  this  purpose  is  made  from  a  pine 
strip  i%  inches  thick  and  2  inches  deep,  with  a  V-shaped 
groove  sawed  in  the  top.  This  trough,  freshly  painted  on 
the  back,  is  nailed  to  the  wall  in  such  position  that  the 
bottom  of  the  groove  lies  directly  beneath  the  corner  of 
the  plate. 

All  tenons  or  mortises  should  be  avoided  upon  the  plate, 
or  in  any  other  place  where  the  wood  is  likely  to  remain 
moist.  The  simplest  and  most  efficient  union  of  sash-bar 
and  plate  is  shown  in  Fig.  20  (page  37),  in  which  the  bar  is 
nailed  on  top  of  the  outward  slope  of  the  plate.  Figs.  24 
and  25  (page  39)  show  a  similar  construction,  except  that 
the  rafter  is  used  and  is  toe-nailed  to  the  inward  slope  of  the 
plate.  If  much  water  is  likely  to  follow  down  the  sash-bar, 
it  is  a  good  practice  to  place  a  tin  shoe  or  trough  under- 
neath the  foot  of  the  bar  (between  it  and  the  plate)  to 
carry  off  the  water,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  21  (page  37). 
Where  the  sash-bar  strikes  the  ridge-pole,  a  notch  or  half- 
mortise  may  be  used,  as  in  Fig.  22  (page  38),  but  even  here 
it  is  usually  preferable  to  simply  toe-nail  the  bars  on,  as  in 
Fig.  23  (page  38). 

The  gutter  is  ordinarily  built  of  lumber,  a  heavy  plank 
forming  its  bottom,  as  in  Figs.  24  and  25  (page  39).  In 
order  to  keep  this  plank  from  warping,  it  is  advisable  to 
saw  a  slit  across  each  end  and  to  drive  a  bar  of  iron  into  it, 
as  seen  in  Fig.  26  (page  40).  The  life  of  the  gutter  may  be 
much  prolonged  by  tinning  it.  A  sharp  fall  will  also  add 
to  its  life  and  to  the  ease  of  keeping  it  clean.  In  some 
cases,  the  entire  house  is  built  upon  a  pitch  in  order  to  give 
a  proper  fall  to  the  gutter,  but  in  general  it  is  best  to 
build  the  house  level  and  to  give  the  gutter  an  indepen- 
dent slope.  Upon  masonry  walls,  a  good  gutter  is  made 
by  leaving  a  trough  on  top  and  plastering  it  thoroughly 
with  Portland  cement. 

Walls. — The  best  side  walls,  in  point  of  durability,  are 


34  THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


WALLS    AND    VENTILATORS. 


35 


17.     Two  types  of  sash-bars. 


made  of  brick  or  stone,  but  unless  they  are  very  thick  or  are 
hollow  they  are  likely  to  be  colder  than  a  well  built  board 
wall  upon  posts.  The  space  represented  by  the  thickness  of 
the  posts  affords  an  admirable 
dead  air  space.  Nearly  all  com- 
mercial forcing-houses  are  upon 
posts,  and  it  is  commonly  said 
that  such  walls  will  last  as  long 
as  the  plate  will.  This  is  proba- 
bly true,  but  the  plates,  as  usually 
made,  are  unnecessarily  short 
lived.  A  forcing-house  should i 
stand  fifteen  or  twenty  years 
without  extensive  repairs,  if  well 
built ;  and  if  the  side  walls  are 
of  masonry  (stone  or  cement),  the  plates  well  made,  the 
roof  so  well  supported  that  it  cannot  sag,  and  the  whole 
freshly  painted  every  year  or  two,  the  structure  should 
stand  nearly  a  life  time.  Good  board  walls  are  shown  in 
Figs.  20  and  25.  In  each,  there  is  an  air- 
space between  the  posts.  In  Fig.  20,  there 
are  two  air-spaces.  The  sheathings  cover- 
ing the  posts  are  shown  at  b  b,  the  post 
at  p,  and  the  siding  at  c.  This  wall,  if 
twell  built,  is  no  doubt  as  warm  as  a  12- 
inch  solid  brick  wall.-5 

Ventilators.— The  house  should  have 
ample  provision  for  ventilating  it,  yet  it  is 
~~*  easy-  to  get  the  openings  so  large  that  the 
sash-  temperature  of  the  interior  may  be  lowered 
too  suddenly  and  too  far  when  the  sash  are 
lifted.  In  windy  days,  it  is  impossible  to  open  very  large 
sash  at  all  without  letting  in  too  much  cold  air  to  the 
plants  immediately  underneath.  Many  small  sash  are  pref- 


*  Experiments  with  greenhouse  walls  have  been  made  at  the  Minne- 
sota Station  (Bull.  7)  and  the  Massachusetts  Station   (Bull.  4). 

4  FORC. 


36  THE   CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

arable  to  a  few  very  large  ones.  The  house  shown  in 
Figs.  12  and  13,  which  is  unusually  light  and  fully  exposed 
to  the  sun,  is  ventilated  by  a  continuous  double  row  of 
sash  a  foot  wide,  and  this  width  is  sufficient  for  all  narrow 
even-span  houses.  Uneven  spans  may  require  ventilators 
a  foot  and  a  half  in  width,  and  I  should  think  that  two 
feet  would  be  the  utmost  desirable  width  for  any  ordinary 
purpose.  It  is  generally  unnecessary  to  have  side  venti- 
lators in  forcing-houses  whose  side  walls  are  under  four 
feet  in  height.  In  general,  it  is  best  to  hang  the  ventilators 
at  the  bottom,  thereby  allowing  the  heated  air  to  pass 
out  at  the  very  peak.  If  a  row  of  sash  is  placed  upon 
either  side,  and  each  row  is  operated  by  a  separate  mech- 


Line  B  C  to  face  outside 
of  house  and  Sash  Bars 
to  nail  to  it 


Ideal  Plate.made  from  a  4"x  6"stick 
The  inner  edge  at  (A)  dressed  down  to  }  inch  thick 


ig.    A  good  forcing-house  plate. 

anism,  the  most  perfect  means  of  ventilation  will  be 
secured.  In  the  very  wide  shed  houses,  ventilators  upon 
the  sides  may  be  necessary. 

The  glass  and  glazing.— Glass  for  forcing-houses  should 
always  be  double-thick,  not  single-thick.  The  double-thick 
glass  may  be  expected  to  save  its  extra  cost  within  a  year 
or  two  in  the  less  breakage,  and  it  makes  better  joints 
and  a>  warmer  house  than  the  single-thick.  The  difference 
in  cost  between  the  two  grades  may  be  indicated  by  stat- 


GLASS   AND    GLAZING. 


37 


ing  that  when  the  price  per  box  (of  22  lights)  of  single- 
thick  glass,  14x24,  was  $2. 25, 
the  cost  of  double-thick  was 

|2.85. 

There  are  two  styles  or 
methods  of  laying  glass, —  the  old- 
time  or  common  method  of  lap- 
ping it,  and  the  butting  it  end  to 
end.  The  advantages  of  the  but- 
ting method  are  supposed  to  be 
the  greater  ease  and  speed  of  lay- 
ing the  roof,  a  tighter  roof,  one 
which  admits  more  light  because 
of  the  absence  of  laps,  and  econ- 
omy of  glass.  The  style  of  bar 
to  be  used  for  butting  is  one  with 
a  very  shallow  muntin  or  projec- 
tion on  top,  as  in 
that  shown  on  the 

right  in  Fig.   17.     The  glass  is  not  laid  in 
putty*,  but  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  bar 
freshly  painted  in  order  to  close  the  joint 
with  the  glass.     The  panes  are  laid  end  to 
end,  and  are  held  in  place,  when  an  entire 
run  has  been  laid,  by  screwing  down  a  cap, 
as  shown   in  the    illustration.      It  is  often 
advised  to  cover  the  ends  of 
the  panes  with  a  thin  film  of 
white  lead,  in  order  to  cement 
the  panes  together  and  thus 
close  the  joints.     All  the  lead 
which  is  squeezed  out  of  the 
joint  is  afterwards  scraped  off, 
so  as  to  make  a  clean    and 


Tin  gutter  at  foot 
sash-bar. 


^f  the 


*A  durable  putty  for  glazing  purposes  is  made  by  mixing  pure  whit- 
ing in  oil,  and  then  using  about  three  parts  of  this,  by  weight,  to  one  of 
pure  white  lead,  mixing  the  ingredients  thoroughly. 


22.    Mortice-joint  at  the  ridge 


38  THE   CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE   FORCING-HOUSE. 

smooth  job.  After  considerable  experience  with  butted 
trlass,  the  writer  has  abandoned  it.  It  is  practically  im- 
possible, with  any  ordinary  grade  of 
glass,  to  make  a  perfectly  smooth  joint 
between  the  panes,  and  at 
every  irregularity  or  rough- 
•  ness  at  the  joints  the  water 
will  collect  and  drip  off. 
This  difficulty  is  particu- 
larly liable  to  occur  if  panes 
are  used  which  are  over 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  wide.  It  is  rare,  also,  that  the 
panes  are  squarely  enough  cut  to  make  perfectly  tight 
joints  possible.  Another  serious  objection  to  butted  glass 
is  the  fact  that  all  the  water  of  condensation  which  does 
not  fall  as  drip  is  carried  down  upon  the  plate,  keeping  it 
constantly  wet  and  tending  to  make  it  decay.  The  drip 
from  the  plate  is  often  a  serious  nuisance,  particularly  if 
there  are  heating  pipes  directly  beneath  from  which  a  con- 
stant shower  of  vapor  arises.  In  lapped  glass,  the  con- 
densed water  follows  down  the  pane  and  passes  out  through 
the  lap  onto  the  roof.  If  glass  is  to  be  butted,  only  the 
double-thick  should  be  used.  The  single-thick  grade  is 
too  irregular  and  uneven  in  thickness  and  curvature  to  allow 
of  making  good  joints  ;  and 
its  very  thinness  makes  it 
impossible  to  secure  suffi- 
cient contact  to 
make  a  tight  job. 
In  the  lapping 
of  glass,  the  panes 
are  bedded  in  soft 
putty,  and  are 
then  held  from 
slipping  down  by 
a  straight  shoe- 
nail  at  each  lower  ,?.  Plam  J0ints  at  the  ridge_ 


GLASS   AND    GLAZING. 


39 


corner  (a  a,  Fig.  27,  page  41 ),  and  are  held  firmly  to  the  bar 
by  glaziers'  points  (ee,  Fig.  27).     The  panes  are 
seen  edgwise.  in  cross-section,  at  B  in  Fig.  27.     It  is 
important,  to  avoid  breakage,  that  no  nail  or  point 
be  placed  on  the  middle  of  the  pane.     No  putty 
is  placed  over  the  glass,  for,  in  the  nearly  hori- 
zontal or  inclined  position  in  which  the  panes  lie, 
the  water  would  collect  underneath  any  such  putty 
.  and  would  crack  it  off  by  freezing.     If  the  panes 
are  well  bedded,  and  if  the  bars  and  the  edges  of 
the  glass  are  given  a  coat  of  paint,  the  job  will 
be  perfectly  tight.     It  is  imperative  that  the  lap  on 
the  panes  should  be  very  short.     A  long  lap  col- 
lects dirt  and  thereby  obstructs  the  light,  and  it 
also  holds  so  much  water  that  the  freezing  of  it  ]4e'r. ^drafter 
snaps  the  corners  of  the  panes.     A  lap  of  a  quarter  and  sash-bar. 
of  an  inch,  or  at  most  of  three-eighths  inch,  is  ample.     In  this 
narrow  lap  the  water  of  condensation  collects  and  makes  a 
warm  joint. 

There  has  been  a  tendency  in  recent  years  towards  the 
use  of  very  large  glass.  Panes  as  large  as  20x36  inches 
have  been  used.  These  seem  to  be  too  wide  for  economy, 
and  they  impose  severe  strains  upon  the  sash-bars,  and 

weaken  the 
rigidity  of  the 
house.  The 
glass  bears  too 
great  a  pro- 
portion to  the 
structural 

frame  of  the  roof.  It  is 
doubtful  if  it  is  wise  to  use 
glass  above  14  or  16  inches 
wide,  and,  through  inquiry 
and  experience,  the  writer 
has  now  settled  upon  14x18 

2$.     Wall,  gutter,  plates,  rajters,  .      ,  ,  .      ,  • 

and  sash-bars  inches  as  about  the  best  size 


THE   CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


for  all  purposes.  Indeed,  I  should  prefer  glass  12  inches 
wide  to  that  which  is  18  inches  wide. 
Beds  and  benches. — Those  plants 
which  thrive  best  without  bottom  heat, 
as  lettuce  generally  does,  are  most 
commonly  grown  in  solid  beds, — that 
is,  on  the  earth.  Those 
crops  requiring  bottom 
heat  must  be  grown  on 
benches.  The  height  of 
these  benches  above  the  26_  Iron  cleat  /„  a  gutter-board. 
ground  must  be  deter- 
mined wholly  by  circumstances.  The  first  thing  to  con- 
sider is  to  secure  sufficient  head  room  for  the  plants,  or,  in 
the  instance  of  low  plants,  to  get  them  near  to  the  glass. 
Benches  will  run  from  a  foot  to  three  feet  above  the  ground. 
They  are  handiest  when  the  extreme  height  is  about  two  feet 
and  the  width  not  over  three  and  a  half  or  four  feet.  The 
depth  of  the  bed  (that  is,  of  the  soil)  varies  with  different 
operators  from  5  to  10  inches.  As  a  rule,  with  good  soil, 
6  or  7  inches  of  earth  is  sufficient.  A  greater  body  of 
earth  is  likely  to  make  a  too  continuous  growth,  with 
consequent  loss  of  earliness,  and  it  requires  more  care 
in  the  watering  if  it  should  become  hard  or  somewhat 
impervious  to  water.  Benches  are  ordinarily  built  of 
common  lumber.  One-inch  hemlock  boards,  in  single 
thickness,  will  last  about  three  winters  if  the  soil  is  removed 
in  the  summer.  Cracks  of  a  half  inch  or  a  little  more 
should  be  left  between  the  boards,  and  it  is  then  not  neces- 
sary to  place  drainage  material  — as  broken  crocks  or 
clinkers  —  on  the  bottoms  of  the  beds.  With  shiftless 
watering,  however,  no  amount  of  drainage  material  can 
insure  safe  results. 


Steam   and    hot    water.  —  Modern    forcing-houses   are 
heated  by  either  steam  or  hot  water  in  wrought-iron  pipes. 


STEAM    VS.    HOT   WATER.  41 

The  old  method  of  heating  by  means  of  the  large  cast  iron 
pipes  is  not  adapted  to  the  forcing  business.  The  com- 
parative merits  of  steam  and  water  as  media  for  conveying 
heat  have  been  much  discussed  in  recent  years,  with  the 
result  that  neither  system  has  gained  a  complete  victory.  In 
other  words,  each  system  has  peculiar  merits.  Our  own 
experience  emphasizes  the  greater  value  of  steam,  but  we 
do  not  condemn  hot  water.  We  believe  that  steam  is 
superior  for  very  large  houses  where  the  fall  is  slight,  for 


27.     The  laying  of  lapped  glass. 

most  forcing-houses,  and  for  all  establishments  which  are 
likely  to  be  often  modified  and  extended.  It  is  particularly 
desirable  in  the  forcing  of  such  "warm"  plants  as  tomatoes 
and  melons.  For  conservatory  purposes,  for  straight  runs 
and  small  and  cool  houses,  it  is  equaled— probably  sur- 
passed in  many  instances— by  water.  Steam  overcomes 


42  THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

obstacles,  as  elbows  and  angles  and  obstructions,  better  than 
hot  water.  It  travels  faster  and  farther.  Crooked  runs  with 
little  fall  are  great  difficulties  in  hot  water  heating.  Steam 
can  be  varied  more  quickly  than  hot  water.  On  the  other 
hand,  steam  is  as  steady  as  hot  water  under  proper  manage- 
ment, and  it  requires  but  little  more  attention.  Practically 
the  same  treatment  is  required  by  both  water  and  steam 
heaters.  Plants  thrive  as  well  under  steam  heat  as  under 
hot  water  heat.  The  opinion  that  steam  heat  is  a  "dry 
heat"  is  erroneous.  Hot  water  heating  demands  from  a  half 
to  twice  more  piping  than  steam  heating,  and  the  original 
cost  is,  therefore,  greater.  This  additional  piping  has  a  cer- 
tain advantage,  however,  inasmuch  as  each  pipe  is  less  hot 
than  in  steam  systems  and  is  less  likely  to  injure  plants 
which  stand  close  to  it.  This  advantage  is  not  great,  how- 
ever, especially  in  forcing  establishments,  where  no  injury 
need  ever  come  from  hot  steam  pipes.  There  is  no  uniform 
advantage  in  consumption  of  fuel  in  either  system.  Theo- 
retically, hot  water  is  probably  more  economical  than  steam, 
but  in  practice  the  cost  is  determined  largely  by  the  particu- 
lar pattern  of  heater  and  the  general  efficiency  of  the  sys- 
tem. Some  tests  show  water  to  be  the  more  economical, 
and  other  tests  give  the  advantage  to  steam.  In  other 
words,  the  fuel  consumption  is  largely  a  local  question. 

The  summary  results  of  various  experiments  upon  the 
comparative  merits  of  steam  and  water  for  heating  plant 
houses,  made  at  Cornell  University  (and  reported  in  Bulle- 
tins 41,  55  and  96),  are  as  follows  :* 

1.  The  temperatures  of  steam  pipes  average  higher  than 
those  of  hot  water  pipes,  under  common  conditions. 

2.  When  the  risers  or  flow  pipes  are  overhead,  the  steam 
spends  relatively  more  of  its  heat  in  the  returns,  as  bottom 
heat,  than  the  water  does. 

*  Other  studies  in  glass  house  heating  will  be  found  in  Bulletins  4,  6,  8 
and  15  of  the  Massachusetts  Hatch  Station  (by  S.  T.  Maynard),  and  in 
Bulletin  63  of  the  Michigan  Station  (by  L.  R.  Taft).  In  these  experi- 
ments, water  gave  the  better  results. 


STEAM    VS.    HOT   WATER.  43 

3.  The  heat  from  steam  distributes  itself  over  a  great 
length  of  pipe  more  readily  than  that  from  hot  water,  and 
steam,  therefore  has  a  distinct  advantage  for  heating  long 
runs. 

4.  Steam  is  preferable  to  hot  water  for  irregular  and 
crooked  circuits. 

5.  Unfavorable  conditions  of  piping  can  be  more  readily 
overcome  with  steam  than  with  water. 

6.  The  addition  of  crooks  and  angles  in  pipes  is  deci- 
dedly   disadvantageous    to  the  circulation  of   hot    wateri 
and  of  steam  without  pressure ;  but  the  effect  is  scarcely 
perceptible  with  steam  under  low  pressure. 

7.  In  starting  a  new  fire  with  cold  water,  circulation  be- 
gins with  hot  water  sooner  than  with  steam,  but,  in  ordina- 
rily long  runs,  it  requires  a  longer  time  for  the  water  to 
reach  a  point  where  the  temperature  of  the  house  is  ma- 
terially affected  than  for  the  steam  to  do  so. 

8.  The  length  of  pipe  to  be  traversed  is  a  much  more 
important  consideration  with   water  than  with  steam,  for 
the  friction  of  the  water  upon  the  pipe  is  much  greater  than 
the  friction  of  steam,  and  a  long  run  warms  slowly  with 
water. 

9.  It  is  necessary  to  exercise  greater  care  in  grading  pipes 
for  water  heating  than  for  steam  heating.     With  steam,  a 
satisfactory  fall  towards  the  boiler  is  much  more  important 
than  the  exact  manner  of  laying  the  pipes. 

jo.  In  heating  by  water  in  closed  circuits,  a  high  expan- 
sion tank  may  increase  the  efficiency  by  allowing  the  water 
to  become  hotter  throughout  the  system,  and  probably  by 
giving  a  better  circulation. 

Piping.  —The  arrangement  of  the  pipes  must  be  adjusted 
by  the  shape  and  size  of  the  house  and  the  crop  to  be 
grown.  The  "cool"  plants,  like  lettuce  and  cauliflower 
(see  page  5),  do  best  without  bottom  heat,  and  for  these 
crops  the  pipes  should  be  above  the  soil  or  bed.  The 
"warm  "  plants,  like  tomato,  melon  and  cucumber,  require 
bottom  heat,  and  for  these  the  return  pipes,  or  some  of 


44  THE   CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUsE. 

them,  should  be  underneath  the  bed.  The  steam  or  hot 
water  is  carried  into  the  house  by  means  of  one  or  two 
pipes,— called  risers  when  steam  is  used,  and  flow-pipes 
when  water  is  used,—  and  is  returned  to  the  heater  through 
from  two  to  six  times  as  many  returns.  The  risers  or  flows 
are  usually  carried  into  the  house  overhead,  and  the  returns 
are  carried  underneath  the  benches,  along  the  walls,  or  the 
sides  of  the  walks.  Aside  from  the  greater  number  of  pipes 
required  in  water  heating,  there  is  little  difference  in  the 
methods  of  piping  for  the  two  systems.  The  highest  point 
in  the  steam  riser  should  be  directly  over  the  heater,  or, 
when  this  is  not  practicable,  it  should  be  at  the  near  end  of 
the  house  or  the  system,  and  the  riser  should  gradually  fall 
from  this  point  to  the  far  end  of  the  house.  This  gives  a 
down-hill  system.  It  is  generally  considered  that  the 
highest  point  in  the  water  flow-pipe  should  be  at  the  far  end 
of  the  house  or  system.  This  is  an  up-hill  system.  Flow- 
pipes  should  not  be  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter  for  runs 
of  60  ft.,  while  steam  may  be  carried  in  a  i>^-inch  riser 
under  similar  circumstances.  In  water  runs  of  this  length, 
there  should  be  two  risers  for  houses  16  to  20  feet  wide, 
particulary  if  warm  plants  are  to  be  grown. 

The  amount  of  pipe  required  for  special  cases  may  be 
determined  by  examining  some  of  the  plans  and  illustra- 
tions. Fig.  i  illustrates  two  methods  of  piping.  It  may  be 
piped  by  running  a  water  flow-pipe  underneath  the  bench 
on  either  side  and  carrying  back  two  returns  under  each 
flow.  This  type  of  heating  is  not  common.  In  such  cases, 
it  would  no  doubt  be  necessary  to  keep  the  space  under 
the  benches  open  next  the  walk  in  order  to  heat  the  house. 
A  commoner  method  is  to  carry  a  riser  or  flow  overhead  at 
X,  and  to  bring  back  six  returns  from  it.  In  Fig.  2,  a  2-inch 
steam  riser  is  carried  overhead  in  the  center,  and  it  breaks 
into  seven  i^-inch  risers  underneath  the  benches.  There  is 
a  similar  arrangement  in  Fig.  3.  These  two  houses  would 
grow  tomatoes  in  New  York  state.  In  Fig.  4,  two  3-inch 
water  flows  near  the  peak  supply  six  i^-inch  returns  under 


PIPING    IN    A   TOMATO    HOUSE. 


45 


28.    Piping  with,  hot  water  for  tomato  growing. 


46  THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

the  two  upper  benches,  and  another  3-inch  flow  and  three 
i^-inch  returns  heat  the  lower  bed.  This  same  house 
could  be  heated  with  steam  by  one  2-inch  riser  and  six  to 
eight  i^-inch  returns.  An  exposed  tomato  house  (Fig. 
14,  page  31),  is  heated  by  a  i>£-inch  steam  riser  which 
feeds  a  i-inch  loop  running  around  the  house  just  under 
the  plate,  and  four  itf-'mch  loops  just  above  the  soil. 
Another  loop  and  a  half  (from  an  independent  riser)  runs 
about  the  center  walk.  In  this  house,  the  bottom  heat 
is  supplied  by  the  heaters  themselves,  which  stand  just 
beneath  the  floor.  The  floor  is  made  of  two  layers  of 
inch  boards,  with  tar  between  the  layers. 

Fig.  J5  (Page  32)»  showing  a  house  used  for  lettuce, 
cauliflowers,  carnations  and  chrysanthemums,  20  ft.  wide 
and  60  ft.  long,  is  heated  by  one  2-inch  steam  riser  and 
two  i><-inch  returns  under  each  side  bench.  The  middle 
bench  is  solid,  and  has  no  bottom  heat.  Fig.  28  (page  45) 
shows  the  water  returns  in  a  tomato  house  near  Philadel- 
phia. There  are  eight  returns  under  each  bench,  the  coil 
standing  edgewise  under  the  left-hand  bench,  and  lying 
flat-wise  under  the  other. 

Flues  and  stoves.  — Beginners  with  little  capital  can  make 
a  very  good  forcing-house  with  old  sash,  and  can  heat  the 
same  with  flues  from  a  home-made  furnace.  Lettuce  houses 
can  even  be  heated  with  a  coal  stove.  The  novice  will 
always  do  well  to  begin  with  a  small  and  simple  establish- 
ment, although  it  rarely  pays  to  erect  a  very  cheap  house 
if  it  can  be  avoided. 

COST     OF     FORCING-HOUSES. 

Only  the  most  general  remarks  can  be  made  respecting 
the  cost  of  forcing-houses,  for  so  much  depends  upon  the 
finish,  the  expense  put  in  foundations,  and  the  experience 
and  efficiency  of  the  workmen.  Taft  estimates  the  expense 
of  building  a  three-quarter  span  rose  house,  20x100  ft., 
including  heating  apparatus,  to  average  about  $1,100  to 


COST    OF   A   FORCING-HOUSE.  47 

$[,2oo.  A  forcing- house  20x60  ft.,  uneven-span,  on  posts, 
with  heavy  rafters  and  glazed  with  large  sash,  heated  by 
steam,  cost  complete  as  follows,  including  a  rough  shed 
in  which  to  place  the  heater  : 

Lumber $99  6 1 

Carpenter  work 72  75 

General  labor 63  63 

Iron  supports  and  plates 9  16 

39  sash 39  oo 

Glass,  12  x  16 62  37 

Glazing      ....       x8  13 

Paint,  oil,  etc 14  52 

Hardware  and  miscellaneous 20  36 

$379  63 
Heating  apparatus  and  piping 375  oo 

1754  53 

The  labor  of  building  the  benches  was  done  by  the 
gardener  after  the  house  was  completed. 

Seven  years  later,  this  house  was  wholly  rebuilt,  an 
entire  new  roof  being  put  on  and  comprising  only  sash- 
bars  and  double-thick  glass.  This  rebuilt  house,  with  the 
upper  bench  not  yet  made,  is  shown  in  Fig.  15.  The  total 
cost  of  the  new  roof,  new  plates,  one  new  bench,  and 
general  repairs,  was  as  follows  : 

52  sash-bars,  16  ft.  long $18  78 

52         "          12  ft.  long 14  08 

Work  upon  bars 14  33 

Sills 19  42 

Glass,  14  x  18 96  oo 

150  ft.  pine  for  ventilators 7  40 

50  panes  glass  for  ventilators .  10  oo 

Putty  and  points       5  75 

Tinning  80  ft.  gutter,  and  labor      13  08 

Painting,  2  coats 6  50 

Labor 80  48 

250  ft.  pine  for  jambs  and  repairs,  and  hardware  and  inci- 
dentals  .   .                     14  20 


$300  02 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  a  house  20  x  100  ft.,  12 


48  THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

feet  high  at  the  ridge,  with  no  glass  on  the  sides,  on  post 
wall,  can  be  built  for  $1,000  to  $1,200,  steam  heating  plant 
complete,  if  the  workmen  about  the  place  assist  in  the 
construction. 

A  forcing-house  50x400  ft.,  broken  span,  with  the  rear 
roof  20  ft.  wide  and  the  front  one  32  ft.  wide,  with  the  front 
wall  4  ft.  high  and  the  rear  one  8  ft.  high,  17  ft.  high  at  the 
ridge,  on  post  walls,  glass  20  x  30  inches,  sash-bars  2x3 
inches,  was  built,  and  fitted  with  steam,  for  $6,000. 

The  house  shown  in  Figs.  5  and  6  (the  property  of  Fred. 
Busch,  Minneapolis)  is  60x300  ft.,  with  a  mushroom  shed 
16  x  300  ft.  on  the  back.  The  total  direct  cash  expense  of 
this  structure  was  $3,300.  To  this  has  to  be  added  the 
work  of  the  regular  hired  men  in  doing  all  the  grading,  the 
setting  of  the  pipe  posts  for  purlines,  half  of  all  the  glazing 
work,  all  the  work  of  steam  fitting,  and  half  of  the  paint- 
ing ;  also  4,000  ft.  of  old  pipe  which  had  been  used  in  hot- 
beds, and  all  the  glass  used  in  the  gables  and  which  had 
been  taken  from  an  old  house  which  was  torn  down.  The 
estimated  expense  of  all  this  extra  work  and  second-hand 
material  is  $700,  making  the  total  cost  of  the  house,  shed 
and  all,  $4,000. 

The  range  of  nine  houses  shown  at  the  left  in  Fig.  8, 
and  again  in  Fig.  9  (also  the  property  of  Mr.  Busch),  each 
house  20x90  ft.,  cost,  complete,  as  lam  informed  by  the 
owner,  $3,600.  This  is  an  unusually  low  cost,  being  only 
$400  per  house. 


CHAPTER  III. 


MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

PROBABLY  there  is  no  horticultural  industry  in  which 
experience  counts  for  so  much  as  in  the  management  of 
plants  in  glass  houses.  Yet  it  is  not  essential  that  one 
"serve  his  time"  in  the  business  in  order  to  learn  it.  Many 
of  our  best  greenhouse  men  have  taken  up  the  occupation 
late  in  life,  or  have  come  to  it  from  widely  different  voca- 
tions. Even  then,  they  have  come  to  their  success  by 
actually  doing  the  work,  but  they  shorten  their  period  of 
manual  experience  by  bringing  to  bear  upon  their  work 
all  the  helps  of  reading,  observation,  and  reflection.  Whilst 
it  is  impossible  to  teach  a  person  how  to  run  a  greenhouse, 
it  is  nevertheless  profitable  to  give  certain  hints  and  sug- 
gestions to  direct  the  course  of  his  effort. 

TEMPERATURES    FOR    THE    VARIOUS    CROPS. 

The  following  figures  represent  the  approximate  average 
temperatures  at  which  winter  vegetables  are  forced.  The 
night  temperatures  are  supposed  to  represent  the  lowest 
or  minimum  averages,  and  the  day  temperatures  are  taken 
in  the  shade  in  days  of  average  sunshine  : 

Cool  Plants— 

Day  Night 

Lettuce 55°  to  60°  40°  to  45° 

Radish 55°  to  60°  45°  to  50° 

Asparagus  and  rhubarb  (when  forced  from 

established  plants) 60°  to  65°  55° 

Celery 60°  to  65°  55° 

Cauliflower 60°  to  70°  55° 

(49) 


50  MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

Warm  Plants— 

Day  ^'ght 

Tomato 75°  65° 

Cucumber 75°  to  80°  65°  to  70° 

Melon 75°  to  85°  65°  to  70° 

Eggplant 75°  to  80°  65° 

Pepper      75°  65° 

Asparagus    and     rhubarb    (when     forced 

from  temporary  roots)      75°  to  85°  65°  to  70° 

In  bright  days  the  temperature  may  run  much  higher  than 
these  figures,  but  if  plenty  of  fresh  air  is  given  on  such 
occasions  no  ill  results  should  follow. 

SOILS  FOR  FORCED  VEGETABLES. 

Forcing-house  soils  should  not  only  be  rich  in  available 
plant  food,  but  they  should  be  of  a  mellow  and  friable 
texture,  so  that  the  water  soaks  through  them  uniformly, 
leaving  them  dryish  and  loose  on  top.  A  soil  with  much 
clay  tends  to  run  together,  or  to  cement  itself,  especially 
if  watered  from  a  hose,  and  the  plants  tend  to  make  a 
spindling  and  unwilling  growth.  On  the  other  hand,  a  soil 
with  very  much  manure  or  litter  is  so  loose  as  not  to  hold 
sufficient  water  to  keep  the  plant  in  health  ;  or  if  it  does 
hold  the  requisite  moisture,  it  tends  to  produce  a  robust 
and  over-willing  growth  at  the  expense  of  fruit.  Yet, 
despite  all  this,  the  skill  of  the  gardener  is  much  more 
important  than  the  character  of  the  soil,  for  a  skillful  man 
will  handle  even  hard  clay  soils  in  such  manner  as  to  give 
good  results.  The  chief  single  factor  of  manipulation  in 
determining  the  productivity  of  soil  in  forcing-houses  is 
the  watering,  to  which  we  shall  presently  advert. 

The  best  forcing-house  soils  are  those  which  have  a 
foundation  of  good  garden  loam,  and  are  lightened  up 
with  sharp  sand  and  some  kind  of  fiber.  This  fiber  is 
usually  very  well  rotted  manure,  or  rotted  sods.  Thin 
sods  cut  from  an  old  pasture  —  especially  from  one  which 
has  a  clay  loam  soil — and  allowed  to  stand  in  a  low  flat 
pile  for  a  year  or  so,  being  turned  or  forked  over  once  or 


SOILS    FOR   THE    FORCING-HOUSE.  51 

twice  in  the  meantime,  make  a  most  excellent  foundation 
for  a  greenhouse  soil.  A  satisfactory  mixture  may  be 
made  by  using  one-third  of  these  rotted  sods,  one-third  of 
mellow  garden  loam,  and  one-third  of  fine  old  horse  ma- 
nure which  has  not  been  leached.  If  the  garden  soil  has 
itself  been  well  enriched  with  stable  manures,  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  add  so  much  in  the  mixture.  If  the 
completed  soil  contains  so  much  clay  as  to  be  sticky,  the 
addition  of  sand  will  correct  it.  Leaf  mold  (not  leaves) 
in  limited  quantity  is  a  most  excellent  substitute  for  ma- 
nure. Broken  and  pulverized  peat  may  also  be  used.  It 
is  always  important  that  the  materials  used  in  the  forcing- 
house  soil  should  be  fine  and  well  broken  down  by  the 
processes  of  decay.  Fresh  and  undecomposed  materials 
give  variable  and  unpredictable  results :  they  are  the 
"raw"  soils  of  gardeners.  Heavy  clays  are  to  be  avoided 
in  the  making  of  forcing-house  soils,  particularly  if  one 
desires  to  grow  the  heading  lettuces. 

The  forcing-house  soil  is  mixed  by  shoveling  the  ingre- 
dients from  piles  into  a  central  common  pile,  a  given  num- 
ber of  shovelfuls  from  each,  and  then  shoveling  the  mixture 
over  once  or  twice.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  cover  the 
bottom  of  the  bench  —  especially  for  melons  and  cucum- 
bers—  with  inverted  sods,  and  then  to  put  on  the  pre- 
pared soil.  Many  gardeners  do  not  take  this  trouble  of 
mixing  the  soil,  and  it  is  not  necessary  if  one  is  able  to 
find  a  natural  soil  to  his  liking  ;  but  unless  the  right  soil 
is  at  hand,  it  is  always  safer  to  take  this  extra  pains 
rather  than  to  rely  upon  an  indifferent  soil.  One  cannot 
afford  to  take  any  unnecessary  risks  in  the  forcing  of 
vegetables. 

When  the  crops  are  grown  on  benches  —  as  those  must 
be  which  require  bottom-heat  —  it  is  necessary  to  change 
the  soil  every  year.  This  is  because  the  soil  loses  texture 
or  fiber  and  becomes  partially  exhausted  of  available  plant 
food,  and  it  is  likely  to  contain  the  spores  of  fungi  or  the 
eggs  of  insects.  Houses  in  which  the  soil  remains  un- 
5  VORC. 


52  MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

changed  rarely  long  remain  free  of  serious  insect  or  fun- 
gous invasions ;  and  in  selecting  soils  for  houses,  it  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  avoid  bringing  in  grubs,  cut- 
worms, wire-worms,  tomato  rust,  and  the  like.  It  is  per- 
fectly possible  to  add  plant  food  to  the  old  soil,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  restore  its  texture  by  that  means,  and  the 
physical  texture  is  usually  more  important  than  its  actual 
store  of  food.  In  the  forcing  of  lettuce  upon  ground 
beds,  it  is  not  always  essential  to  remove  the  earth  every 
year,  although  an  inch  or  two  of  the  top  must  be  re- 
moved if  the  mildew  has  been  serious,  and  the  soil  should 
always  be  fertilized  before  another  season  of  forcing  is 
begun.  The  best  growers  prefer,  however,  to  replace 
four  or  five  inches  of  the  top  soil  every  summer. 

THE   QUESTION    OF    FERTILIZERS. 

Most  forcing-house  crops  need  to  be  fertilized  as  they 
grow.  This  is  particularly  important  for  tomatoes,  cucum- 
bers and  melons.  The  fertilizer  most  liked  by  gardeners 
is  liquid  manure.  This  is  made  from  old  unleached  cow 
manure  (such  as  has  been  lying  for  some  months  in  a  barn 
basement).  A  bushel  of  it  is  placed  in  a  half-barrel  or  tub 
and  the  receptacle  is  filled  with  water.  After  standing  two 
or  three  days,  being  stirred  occasionally  in  the  meantime, 
the  liquid  is  ready  for  use.  This  liquid  must  be  reduced 
before  it  is  applied  to  soil  in  which  plants  are  growing,  and 
the  amount  of  reduction  to  give  it  can  be  determined  only 
by  experience.  Ordinarily,  one  quart  of  liquid  made  as 
here  directed  will  be  sufficient  for  a  gallon  of  the  diluted 
material  ;  that  is,  one  quart  of  the  manure  water  is  added 
to  three  quarts  of  clear  water.  If  the  manure  is  strong, 
the  tub  may  be  filled  with  water  three  or  four  times  before 
the  strength  of  the  material  is  dissolved  out.  A  tub  of  this 
manure  liquid  should  always  be  accessible  in  forcing-house 
work.  How  often  the  liquid  shall  be  applied  to  the  crops 
must  be  determined  for  each  particular  case.  If  the  soil  is 


FERTILIZERS    WITH    TOMATOES.  53 

rich,  the  plants  will  not  be  likely  to  need  the  liquid  manure 
in  their  young  or  maiden  stage,  but  as  soon  as  the  melons 
or  tomatoes  are  set  the  fertilizing  will  usually  be  appre- 
ciated. It  is  then  sometimes  profitable  to  apply  it  freely 
once  or  twice  a  week. 

There  is  very  little  exact  knowledge  respecting  the  use 
of  chemical  fertilizers  for  forcing-house  crops.  The  best 
gardeners  generally  like  to  add  bone  flour  or  some  com- 
mercial fertilizer  to  soils  which  have  not  already  been 
well  fertilized,  and  it  is  a  common  practice  to  work  a 
dressing  of  bone  into  the  soil  after  the  plants  become 
well  established. 

The  Connecticut  experiments  with  tomatoes. — The  best 
experiments  which  have  been  made  in  this  country  upon 
fertilizers  for  forced  vegetables  were  conducted  at  the  Con- 
necticut Experiment  Station.*  These  experiments  were 
concerned  with  tomatoes  and  lettuce  under  glass.  A  full 
abstract  of  these  studies,  so  far  as  they  give  direct  horti- 
cultural results,  will  be  useful  and  suggestive  to  the  gar- 
dener and  the  student. 

"To  those  who  are  raising  or  contemplate  raising 
winter  crops  under  glass,  the  question  of  substituting  fer- 
tilizers for  manure,  in  part  at  least,  is  a  very  important 
one.  Forcing-house  soil,  as  it  is  usually  prepared,  con- 
sists of  rich  garden  soil  or  rotted  turf,  composted  with 
from  one-fourth  to  one-half  its  bulk  of  horse  manure. 
Aside  from  the  labor  of  hauling  and  of  repeatedly  work- 
ing over  this  material  to  secure  the  fine  mellow  condition 
which  is  desired,  the  cost  formerly  was  not  great.  But 
the  general  introduction  of  electric  cars  has  cut  down 
enormously  the  production  of  horse  manure  in  cities, 
which  has  been  the  main  dependence  of  our  market 
gardeners.  In  consequence,  the  preparation  of  suitable 

*E.  H.  Jenkins  and  W.  E.  Britton  in  Nineteenth  Rep.  Conn.  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  (for  1895),  pp.  75-98.  The  reader  may  also  find  experiments 
upon  forcing-house  fertilizers  in  Bull.  10  (1890)  and  15  (1891)  of  the 
Mass.  Hatch  Exp.  Sta.,  and  in  Bull.  43  (1892)  of  the  Ohio  Station. 


54  MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

soil  for  forcing-houses  is  increasingly  expensive.  Besides 
this,  it  is  found  that  even  a  rich  natural  soil  cannot  carry 
forcing-house  tomatoes  to  their  highest  productiveness, 
and  therefore  liquid  manure  is  often  used  to  water  the 
soil  after  the  plants  have  come  into  bearing. 

"The  admirable  work  on  the  use  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers on  field  tomatoes  done  at  the  New  Jersey  Sta- 
tion has  proved  that  the  ripening  of  the  crop  may  be 
very  materially  hastened  by  the  proper  use  of  fertilizer 
chemicals,  especially  of  nitrate  of  soda.*  To  hasten 
the  ripening  of  crops  under  glass,  where  the  expense  of 
growing  them  is  so  much  greater  than  in  the  field,  must 
greatly  increase  the  profits  of  the  business. 

"These  considerations  have  led  us  to  endeavor  to 
determine  with  all  possible  accuracy  how  much  plant 
food  various  forcing-house  crops  take  from  the  soil  dur- 
ing their  growth,  and  whether  commercial  fertilizers  can 
be  used  instead  of  stable  manure,  wholly  or  in  part,  to 
supply  this  plant  food.  A  further  question  also  con- 
nected with  these  is,  whether  the  humus  of  rotted  manure, 
generally  regarded  as  necessary  to  regulate  the  storage 
and  circulation  of  moisture  in  the  soil  under  natural  con- 
ditions, can  be  replaced  by  some  cheap  substitute,  or 
dispensed  with  altogether  in  forcing-house  culture,  where 
the  supply  of  soil  moisture  can  be  well  regulated  by 
artificial  means." 

"Our  first  endeavor  was  to  find  out  how  much  nitro- 
gen tomato  plants  raised  under  glass  take  from  the  soil, 
in  their  fruit  and  vines,  and  how  much  nitrogen  needs  to 
be  in  the  soil  to  meet  fully  this  demand  of  the  plants. 
These  questions  we  studied  by  raising  tomatoes  in  plots 
on  the  forcing-house  benches  which  were  filled  with  a 
soil  known  to  be  practically  free  from  available  nitrogen, 
but  believed  to  contain  all  other  ingredients  necessary 

•[Similar,  though  less  specific,  results  have  been  obtained  by  the  Cor- 
nell  Station.    See  its  Bulletins  X..  XXI.,  32,  45.] 


FERTILIZERS   WITH    TOMATOES.  55 

for  a  maximum  tomato  crop.  To  these  plots  were  added 
known  quantities  of  nitrogen  in  form  of  nitrate  of  soda." 

Five  plots  (numbered  from  4  to  8)  were  set  aside  in 
the  center  bed  of  a  forcing-house,  each  plot  containing 
about  14  square  feet.  The  benches  were  9  inches  deep, 
and  the  artificial  soils  were  filled  in  to  the  depth  of  8 
inches.  "  The  soil  for  each  plot  was  separately  mixed  as 
follows :  300  pounds  of  anthracite  coal  ashes,  sifted  to 
pass  a  wire  screen  with  four  meshes  to  the  inch,  were 
spread  on  a  cement  floor,  and  9  pounds  of  peat  moss, 
such  as  is  sold  in  the  cities  for  stable  bedding,  screened 
like  the  ashes,  were  scattered  over  them.  To  these  were 
added  three  and  one-half  ounces  of  precipitated  carbon- 
ate of  lime,  to  neutralize  a  slight  acidity  of  the  peat  and 
give  to  the  whole  a  mild  alkaline  reaction.  These  ma- 
terials were  shoveled  over  twice  carefully  and  then  spread 
as  before. 

"The  fertilizers  designed  for  the  plot —  [nitrate  of  soda, 
dissolved  bone  black,  and  muriate  of  potash]  —  were 
sprinkled  over  this  mixture  and  the  whole  was  carefully 
shoveled  over  twice  again  to  secure  as  perfect  a  mixture 
as  possible  of  fertilizers  and  soil,  and  then  carried  in  a 
hand-barrow  to  the  designated  plot  in  the  forcing-house. 

"The  north  bench  in  the  same  house  was  filled  with  a 
rich  soil  prepared  by  composting  good  thick  turf  with  one- 
third  Us  bulk  of  stable  manure.  Plants  were  set  in  this 
bench  mainly  to  make  a  rough  comparison  between  crops 
grown  on  the  two  radically  different  soils.  The  exposure 
of  the  two  benches  was  slightly  different,  that  of  the  north 
bench  being,  perhaps,  somewhat  less  favorable  as  regards 
light.  The  plants  set  in  the  north  bench  were  also  much 
closer  together. 

"Three  varieties  of  tomatoes  were  used:  Ignotum, 
Acme,  and  Dwarf  Champion,  two  plants  of  each  variety 
being  set  in  each  plot,  and  all  receiving  the  same  treat- 
ment." 

The  tabular  results  of  these  experiments  are  as  follows  : 


MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


"ff 


uoidureqo         «££•?,.„,     „,„ 
J««Q  £&«**"         *- 


S.^'S.S 


•mn,oa3i 


uoiduiEio 

JJEMQ 


•tamouSi        l^S1™!!-"     *" 


•3UJDV 


•uinjou3j         o* 


" 


uoidraeio 

JJIMQ 


:::!:: 
illliil 

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iiif!i  I 

^•-t3  *3  O*^      — 


Yield  of  each  variety,  a  plants, 
grams  ............. 
Average  yield  per  plant,  grams  .  . 
........  pounds.  . 
Average  number  fruits  per  plant  . 
Average  weight  per  fruit,  grams  .  . 
Average  number  of  double  fruits  . 
"  "  perfect  shaped 
fruits  .............. 
Per  cent  of  perfect  shaped  fruits  .  . 
Average  yield  per  square  foot  of 
bench  area,  grams  ...... 
Average  yield  per  square  foot  of 
bench  area,  pounds  ....... 


FERTILIZERS    FOR    TOMATOES.  57 

Some  of  the  horticultural  statistics  of  these  results  are 
as  follows  : 

"  i.  The  highest  average  weight  per  fruit  of  the  Ignotum 
variety  was  on  plot  6,  of  the  Acme  on  plot  7,  and  of  the 
Dwarf  Champion  on  plot  8. 

"2.  The  tendency  to  bear  double  flowers,  which  pro- 
duced irregular-shaped  fruit,  seemed  to  bear  no  relation  to 
the  quantity  of  nitrogen  applied,  nor  to  the  variety.  The 
same  plant  produced  both  single  and  double  blossoms. 

"3.  The  number  of  perfect  fruits  was  absolutely  larger 
on  the  plots  receiving  most  nitrogen,  but  there  was  no  very 
marked  relative  increase  in  number. 

"4.  Comparison  of  the  three  varieties  shows  that  Acme 
gave  the  largest  yield  in  artificial  soil,  but  the  yield  of  Igno- 
tum was  considerably  the  largest  of  the  three  when  grown 
in  rich  garden  soil. 

"Acme  gave  the  greatest  average  number  of  tomatoes 
per  plant,  while  the  average  weight  per  fruit  of  Ignotum  was 
considerably  greater  than  that  of  the  other  varieties. 

"5.  The  Dwarf  Champion  proved  to  be  an  unprofitable 
variety  in  this  test. 

"6.  Tomatoes  from  the  unfertilized  plot  (Plot  4)  were 
small,  smooth,  and  of  good  shape,  but  the  color  was  not 
normal.  They  were  too  light  in  color  and  slightly  rusty- 
looking, —  having  a  faded  appearance.  The  flesh  of  the 
tomato  was  very  dry,  and  sweet  to  the  taste  —  much  sweeter 
than  tomatoes  from  other  plots. 

' '  Tomatoes  of  best  form,  size  and  color  grew  upon  plots 
6  and  7.  Those  from  plot  8  (and  a  few  from  plot  7)  ripened 
very  unevenly,  and  were  green  about  the  stem  when  the 
other  side  of  the  fruit  was  of  good  color  and  apparently 
ripe.  These  tomatoes  had  a  decided  tendency  towards  soft- 
ness while  still  green  ;  the  form  and  size  were  very  good." 

We  come  now  to  a  comparison  of  plants  grown  in  natural 
soil  with  those  grown  in  artificial  soil.  "  These  were  set 
much  closer  in  the  bench  than  those  grown  in  artificial  soil. 
The  latter  had  a  bench  space  of  2.31  square  feet  per  plant,  the 


58  MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

former  about  1.15  square  feet.  The  plants  in  soil  had  three 
weeks  the  start  of  those  in  ashes  and  peat,  being  set  in  the 
beds  on  December  7th,  while  the  plants  were  not  set  in  the 
ashes  and  peat  until  December  3ist.  These  facts  render 
any  very  strict  comparison  of  the  two  impossible,  nor  was 
strict  comparison  intended  when  the  experiment  was  begun. 
The  following  facts,  however,  deserve  notice.  In  what  fol- 
lows we  refer  only  to  the  crops  grown  on  plots  7  and  8. 
The  others,  4,  5,  and  6,  had  no  adequate  supply  of  nitrogen, 
and  it  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  plots  7  and  8  in  all 
probabilty  did  not  have  a  full  supply  of  either  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  or  potash. 

"The  tomatoes  grown  in  ashes  and  peat  grew  and 
fruited  much  more  rapidly  than  those  in  natural  soil,  and 
then  suddenly  stopped  their  growth  and  bearing,  the  leaves 
turned  brown  and  the  plants  appeared  to  be  dead.  They 
were  not  dead,  however,  by  any  means,  and  after  cutting 
back  to  near  the  roots  and  supplying  more  fertilizers,  they 
made  a  new  and  vigorous  growth  and  fruited  again.  The 
plants  grown  in  natural  soil,  however,  kept  bearing  a  little 
fruit  till  the  following  July,  when  they  were  thrown  out  to 
make  room  for  other  experiments. 

"We  believe  the  plants  in  peat  and  ashes  fruited  more 
quickly  and  abundantly,  because  they  had  at  first  a  larger 
supply  of  soluble  plant  food  than  those  in  natural  soil :  — 
that  when  that  was  exhausted,  they  had  no  resource,  and 
died  back  in  consequence:  —  that  if  they  had  been  suffi- 
ciently fertilized,  they  would  have  proved  far  more  prolific 
and  profitable  than  those  in  natural  soil.  To  decide  this 
will  be  one  point  in  further  experiments. 

"The  following  statement  gives  the  average  yield  per 
plant  of  the  three  varieties  (4  plants  of  each)  on  plot  8  in 
artificial  soil  with  commercial  fertilizers,  also  the  average 
yield  per  plant  (an  equal  number  of  each  of  the  three  varie- 
ties was  used  to  calculate  this)  of  the  three  varieties  grown 
in  rich  natural  soil  up  to  April  i7th,  the  date  when,  as  al- 
ready described,  the  plants  in  artificial  soil  died  back  for 


FERTILIZERS    AND    TOMATOES.  59 

lack  of  nourishment.  Up  to  this  date  the  plants  had  been 
growing  in  the  natural  soil  three  weeks  longer  than  in  the 
artificial  soil.  The  total  yield  of  the  plants  in  natural  soil, 
up  to  July  i6th,  is  also  given,  though  after  the  middle  of 
April  there  is  little  or  no  profit  in  forcing-house  toma- 
toes." The  tabular  results  are  as  follows  : 

Peat  and  ashes 

with  fertilizers.  Natural  soil. 

To  April  i;th    To  April  i;th    To  July  i6th 

Yield  per  plant  (grains)   .  .   .  2087  976  1820 

Yield  per  plant  (pounds)    .   .  4-59  2.15  4.00 

Number  of  fruits  per  plant    .  21  10.4  22.7 

Weight  of  fruits  (grams)    .   .  99.1  91.7  82.4 

Yield  per  square  foot  (grams)  904  847.0  1583 

Yield  per  square  foot  (pounds)  1.99  1.86  3.5 

"The  table  shows  that  up  to  the  time  when  the  fertilizers 
in  the  artificial  soil  were  proved  (by  the  chemical  analyses) 
to  be  exhausted,  the  plants  in  artificial  soil  had  produced, 
per  square  foot  of  bench  space,  7  per  cent  more  tomatoes 
than  those  in  the  natural  soil,  while  the  latter  had,  up  to  that 
time,  three  weeks  more  of  growing  season.  It  is  possible 
that  the  plants  in  natural  soil,  if  they  had  been  set  further 
apart,  would  have,  in  the  same  time,  made  a  larger  crop  per 
foot  of  bench  space.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  with  an  in- 
creased supply  of  fertilizers  the  plants  in  artificial  soil  would 
have  given  a  largely  increased  yield.  We  cite  these  figures 
only  to  show  that  the  tomato  crop  can  be  successfully  grown 
in  a  soil  made  of  ashes  and  peat,  such  as  we  have  described, 
with  the  aid  of  commercial  fertilizers." 

While  these  experiments  were  inaugurated  "solely  to 
determine  how  much  nitrogen  in  the  soil  was  necessary  for 
the  full  development  of  the  tomato  plant,"  the  experimen- 
ters nevertheless  "  feel  justified  in  calling  attention  to  certain 
apparent  advantages  in  using  the  artificial  soil."  In  this 
artificial  soil  there  is  less  liability  to  fungous  troubles  and 
insects,  and  the  cost  is  less  than  for  natural  soils.  "For 
every  100  square  feet  of  bench  space,  about  2,200  pounds  of 
sifted  coal  ashes  and  63  pounds  of  dried  peat  or  leaf  mold 


60  MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

is  required  to  fill  the  bench  8  inches  deep  with  soil.  Ex- 
periments are  now  in  progress  to  determine  whether  the 
use  of  peat  is  necessary.  About  10  pounds  of  commercial 
fertilizers  are  needed  for  this  bench  space,  costing,  at  pres- 
ent ruling  ton  rates,  less  than  21  cents.  The  cost  of  these 
things  is  to  be  compared  with  the  cost  of  providing  a  con- 
siderably greater  weight  of  rich  compost  containing  a  large 
relative  amount  of  stable  manure.  In  very  many  cases,  the 
cost  of  filling  the  benches  with  the  artificial  soil  must  be 
very  much  less  than  the  cost  of  filling  them  with  rich  garden 
soil. 

"The  greatest  expense  in  running  a  forcing-house  is  the 
artificial  heat  required,  and  for  this  reason,  quick  growth 
and  early  maturity  are  extremely  desirable.  Regarding  the 
relative  availability  of  the  potash  and  phosphates  in  compost 
and  in  commercial  fertilizers,  we  know  little,  but  it  is  very 
certain  that  the  nitrogen  of  composts  is  slowly  available  as 
compared  with  the  nitrogen  of  nitrates.  Our  tomato  tests 
showed,  too,  very  clearly,  that  plants  in  natural  soil  made 
much  slower  growth  and  were  slower  in  fruiting  than  those 
in  artificial  soil  supplied  with  nitrates.  Though  the  former 
were  set  fully  three  weeks  earlier,  both  began  fruiting  at  the 
same  time." 

The  general  summary  of  all  the  results  of  fertilizing  the 
tomatoes  is  as  follows  : 

"  i.  A  forcing-house  tomato  crop  yielding  about  two 
pounds  of  fruit  for  each  square  foot  of  bench  room,  takes, 
in  the  vines  and  fruit,  for  every  hundred  square  feet  of 
bench  space,  not  less  than  : 

Grams.                                                                    Lbs  Ors. 

Nitrogen 168    Equivalent  to  Nitrate  of  soda              2  5 

Phosphoric  acid  .   .     65              "          "   Dissolved  bone  black    o  13 

Potash 362               "          "   Muriate  of  potash          i  9 

"  Of  this  from  a  fourth  to  a  fifth  only  is  in  the  vines. 

"2-  To  enable  the  plants  to  get  these  fertilizer  elements 
as  required,  there  should  be  a  large  excess  of  them  in  the 
soil,  perhaps  double  the  quantity  given  above. 


FERTILIZERS    WITH    LETTUCE.  6l 

"3.  Every  100  pounds  of  tomato  fruit  takes  from  the  soil 
approximate!"  : 

Ounces.  Ounces. 

Nitrogen  ......     2.2    Equivalent  to  Nitrate  of  soda  14 

Phosphoric  acid    .   .     0.9  "          "    Dissolved  bone  black  5 

Potash  .......     4-G  "         "   Muriate  of  potash  10 

"4.  It  is  possible  to  grow  a  crop  of  forcing-house  toma- 
toes, amounting  to  two  or  more  pounds  per  square  foot  of 
bench  space,  perfectly  normal  in  size,  color,  taste  and 
chemical  composition,  by  the  aid  of  commercial  fertilizers 
alone,  and  in  soil  composed  of  coal  ashes  and  peat." 

The  Connecticut  experiments  with  lettuce.  —  Experi- 
ments like  those  detailed  for  the  tomatoes  were  also  made 
upon  lettuce.  Four  plots  (numbered  from  38  to  41)  of 
Simpson  White-seeded  and  Tennisball  varieties,  each  con- 
taining about  ii  Y*  square  feet,  received  each  200  pounds 
of  the  peat  and  ashes  mixture  (containing  5  per  cent  of 
peat).  The  bed  was  filled  to  a  depth  of  6  inches.  Some 
of  the  details  of  the  test  are  as  follows  : 


Fertilizers  applied.     Plot  38. 

Plot  39. 

Plot  40. 

Plot  41 

Nitrogen   .... 

7.11  grams 

1  1.  80  grams 

16.59  grams 

21.34  grams 

Equivalent  ni- 

trate of  soda 

44.4 

74.0        " 

103-7 

133-4 

" 

Phosphoric     acid 

6.80 

6.80      " 

6.80      " 

680 

" 

Equivalent  dis- 

" 

solved     bone 

black    .... 

40.0 

40.0 

40.0        " 

40.0 

Potash     

24.24        " 

24.24      " 

24.24      " 

24-24 

" 

Equivalent  mu- 

riate of  potash 

48-5 

48.5        " 

48.5        " 

48.5 

'• 

Crops  harvested. 

. 

Lettuce  Heads    . 

1232.8         " 

2217.6         •' 

2720.6         " 

3083.1 

" 

Lettuce    Roots 

(with  much  ad- 

hering soil)  .   . 

219-6 

361.3 

3684        " 

368.5 

11 

Total   

I452-4 

2578.9 

3089.0 

3451-6 

" 

Dry  substance  of 

crop     

205-5 

346-2 

349.56        " 

358.83 

M 

"The  facts  which  this  experiment  has  developed  may 
be  summarized  as  follows: 


62  MANAGEMENT   OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

"i.  Lettuce  of  good  quality  can  be  grown  under  glass 
in  an  artificial  soil  such  as  we  have  described,  with  the  use 
of  commercial  fertilizers.  We  are  not  prepared  to  say  at 
present  that  its  quality  is  as  good  as  the  best  lettuce 
grown  in  rich,  natural  soil. 

"2.  A  crop  of  forcing-house  lettuce,  raised  as  above 
described,  takes  from  the  soil  in  roots  and  heads,  per 
1,000  heads,  not  less  than  : 

Grams.  Pounds.  Ounces. 

Nitrogen.  .   .  .282.6    Equivalent  to  3  15     Nitrate  of  soda 

Phosphoric  acid    87.7  "12      Dissolved  bone  black. 

Potash 621.0  "  2  10     Muriate  of  potash. 

"3.  To  supply  this  plant  food  to  the  soil  under  the 
conditions  of  our  experiment,  it  was  necessary  to  add  to 
the  soil  the  following  quantities  of  fertilizers  per  1,000 
plants,  or  per  387  square  feet,  the  area  used  in  our  ex- 
periment for  1,000  plants  : 

Pounds.  Ounces.  Costing,  cents. 

Nitrate  of  soda 9  13  25 

Dissolved  bone  black 2  15  4 

Muriate  of  potash 3  8  7 

36 

On  the  use  of  fresh  stable  manure.— All  experienced 
gardeners  place  the  greatest  faith  in  old  well-rotted  stable 
manure,  and  uniformly  avoid  fresh  manure.  A  discus- 
sion of  the  behavior  of  fresh  manure  in  its  relation  to 
nitrification  is  made  in  the  Connecticut  report  which  is 
quoted  above,  and  it  seems  to  throw  much  light  upon 
the  craft  of  gardeners.  A  somewhat  full  abstract  of  the 
article  is  here  given.  It  is  known  that  when  nitrogen 
compounds,  either  in  the  form  of  nitrates  or  occurring  in 
organic  matter  in  manures,  are  fully  exposed  to  the  air, 
the  nitrogen  may  be  lost  as  gas  by  the  action  of  certain 
denitrifying  microbes.  It  now  seems  probable  that  simi- 
lar losses,  though  much  less  in  amount,  may  be  occasioned 
in  the  soil  by  the  use  of  fresh  stable  manure.  Wagner 
has  found  that  the  nitrogen  of  well-rotted  stable  manure 


THE  USE  OF  FRESH  MANURE.  63 

is  much  less  readily  available  to  plants  than  has  been 
generally  supposed.  If  the  availability  of  the  nitrogen  of 
nitrates  be  taken  as  100,  that  of  the  nitrogen  of  well- 
rotted  manure  was  only  45  per  cent.  Kiihn  has  found, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  the  nitrogen  of  fresh  cattle  dung 
is  very  readily  available.  If  the  availability  of  the  nitro- 
gen of  sulphate  of  ammonia  be  taken  as  100,  that  of  fresh 
manure  was  92  per  cent.  Wagner  further  observed  that 
fresh  manure  has  a  decided  tendency  to  liberate  the  ni- 
trogen of  nitrates  or  of  green  manures,  so  "that  the  in- 
crease of  crops  secured  by  the  horse  dung  and  nitrates, 
etc.,  together,  may  be  less  than  is  produced  by  the  ni- 
trates, etc.,  alone." 

"  It  appears  that  soils,  to  which  were  added  three  grams 
of  nitrogen  ;  viz.,  two  grams  in  form  of  fresh  horse  dung 
and  one  gram  in  form  of  nitrate  of  soda,  yielded  a  very 
considerably  smaller  crop  than  the  same  soil  to  which 
one  gram  of  nitrate  nitrogen  was  added  without  dung. 
This,  according  to  Wagner,  is  explained  by  the  fact  that 
the  microbes  in  the  fresh  dung  expelled  nitrogen  in  the 
gaseous  form,  both  from  the  dung  itself  and  from  the 
nitrate,  before  vegetation  could  assimilate  it. 

"While  the  horse  dung  applied  in  Wagner's  trials  was 
fresh  and  the  quantities  were  much  larger  than  are  ordi- 
narily used  in  farm  practice,  yet  the  facts  above  cited 
have  a  very  important  bearing  on  the  use  of  fresh  stable 
manure  and  possibly  on  the  value  of  composts,  such  as 
are  used  for  forcing-house  soil,  in  which  the  proportion 
of  stable  manure  is  approximately  near  to  that  which  was 
used  in  Wagner's  tests,  where  a  large  loss  of  nitrogen  was 
observed.  It  might,  therefore,  happen  that  applications 
of  nitrates  or  other  nitrogenous  fertilizers  to  the  soil  of 
the  forcing-house  would  have  no  marked  effect  on  the 
crop,  while  nevertheless  available  nitrogen  was  deficient 
and  the  crop  suffering  in  consequence.  This  result  might 
at  least  be  expected  to  follow  the  use  of  fresh  manure 
water." 


64  MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

Tests  made  at  the  Connecticut  Station  itself  confirmed 
these  general  results.  The  investigation  was  carried  to 
mixtures  of  nitrates  with  garden  loam  and  to  potting  soil, 
as  well  as  to  mixtures  with  fresh  manure.  The  garden 
soil  had  very  little  effect  in  reducing  the  nitrates. 

In  another  experiment,  fresh  horse  dung  and  potting 
soil  were  used.  The  potting  soil  ll  was  made  of  pasture 
sod  and  the  soil  just  beneath,  composted  with  about  one- 
third  their  bulk  of  mixed  horse  and  cow  manures.  The 
mixture,  made  in  the  summer  of  1894,  had  stood  in  a 
conical,  compact  pile,  exposed  till  the  fall  of  1895.  The 
soil  for  this  experiment  was  taken  from  the  interior  of 
this  pile  at  a  depth  of  2-3  feet."  *  *  *  "While  the 
surface  soil  of  the  garden,  although  heavily  dressed  each 
year  with  stable  manure,  had  little  or  no  effect  in  destroy- 
ing nitrates,  the  potting  earth  (made  by  composting  con- 
tiguous pasture  sod  and  a  few  inches  of  underlying  soil 
with  stable  manure),  reduced'  nitrates  to  about  half  the 
extent  caused  by  fresh  horse  dung. 

"This  result  is  in  accord  with  familiar  facts.  The 
surface  soil  of  tilled  ground  is  commonly  or  always 
charged  with  oxidizing  and  nitrifying  organisms.  Fresh 
and  damp  compost  heaps  where  vegetable  or  animal 
matters  are  abundant  and  the  soil  of  forests,  low  mead- 
ows and  bogs,  contain  little  or  no  nitrates,  and  their 
bacterial  growths  are  of  the  deoxidizing  or  reducing 
kinds.  It  is  probable  that,  near  the  surface  of  the  heap 
of  potting  earth,  nitrifying  organisms  were  abundant  at 
the  very  time  when  the  sample  taken  from  the  interior 
was  found  to  have  a  denitrifying  effect.  Accordingly,  the 
use  of  potting  earth  from  the  exterior  of  a  compost  heap 
may  occasion  no  loss  of  nitrate-nitrogen,  while  earth  from 
the  interior  of  the  heap  may  reduce  nitrates  and  cause 
serious  waste  of  any  nitrate  that  is  applied  as  a  fertilizer. 
It  is  therefore  advisable,  some  time  before  using  potting 
compost,  to  iplace  it  under  cover  away  from  rain,  and  to 
intermix  it  thoroughly  and  frequently,  and  to  keep  it  in 
rather  shallow  heaps." 


WATERING    FORCING-HOUSES.  65 

WATERING. 

Of  all  the  operations  which  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  gar- 
dener, there  is  perhaps  none  which  requires  the  exer- 
cise of  so  much  judgment  as  the  watering  of  plants  grow- 
ing under  glass.  The  frequency  of  the  watering,  the 
amounts  to  apply,  and  how  to  apply  it,  must  all  be  de- 
termined by  the  immediate  conditions.  There  can  be  no 
rules  for  the  practice.  The  best  single  statement  to 
make,  perhaps,  is  to  say  that  plants  should  be  watered 
when  they  need  it ;  but  this  means  little.  Plants  may 
need  water  and  yet  be  ruined  by  the  giving  of  it. 
Watering  is  performed  primarily  to  supply  the  plant  with 
food,  yet  there  are  certain  secondary  effects  of  the 
practice  which  should  be  thoroughly  understood. 

It  must  first  be  said  that  the  application  of  water  radi- 
cally changes,  for  the  time  being,  both  the  temperature 
and  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  and  these  features  are 
the  very  ones  which  bear  most  intimate  relations  to 
plant  growth.  Watering  modifies  the  temperature  of  the 
soil,  both  because  the  water  itself  absorbs  heat  and  be- 
cause the  evaporation  of  it  is  a  cooling  process.  Plants 
which  love  a  high  temperature  receive  a  serious  check  the 
moment  the  soil  is  drenched  with  cold  water.  The 
grower  of  winter  melons,  for  example,  must  never  hope 
for  the  best  success  if  he  soaks  his  benches  with  hydrant 
water.  As  a  rule,  water  must  be  given  at  such  times  that 
it  will  change  the  temperature  of  the  soil  the  least  and 
will  allow  the  quickest  return  to  its  normal  warmth.  In 
the  middle  of  the  day,  the  change  produced  by  watering 
may  be  too  violent.  Water  is  then  supplied  indirectly  by 
wetting  down  the  walks ;  and  when  the  temperature  of 
the  air  has  been  somewhat  reduced  the  plants  may  be 
syringed  and  the  soil  may  be  watered,  if  it  needs.  It  is 
generally  better  to  water  forced  vegetables  early  in  the 
day  in  order  that  the  soil  may  become  thoroughly  warmed 
up  again  before  night.  Watering  towards  night  is  likely 


66  MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

to  carry  the  plants  too  cool  through  the  night,  for  the  body 
of  warm  earth  is  a  powerful  factor  in  regulating  and  con- 
serving the  night  temperature  of  the  house.  While  it  is 
generally  not  advisable  to  thoroughly  water  the  soil  from 
a  hose  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  it  is,  nevertheless,  very 
essential  that  the  most  profuse  waterings  be  given  on 
sunny  days.  This  is  because,  as  already  stated,  the  sun 
soon  warms  up  the  house,  and  also  because  the  house  and 
foliage  soon  dry  off.  Houses  which  have  a  continually 
damp  air  breed  soft  plants  and  fungous  diseases.  The 
plants  should  go  into  the  night  dry  —  never  wet.  It  is 
always  best  to  withhold  water  on  dull  days,  unless  the 
plants  are  actually  suffering  for  it.  Perhaps  these  remarks 
cannot  be  better  summed  up  than  by  saying  that  glass 
houses  should  be  watered  on  a  rising  temperature,  not 
on  a  falling  temperature. 

The  next  most  important  secondary  effect  of  watering, 
as  already  indicated,  is  the  modification  of  the  physical 
texture  of  the  soil.  The  application  of  water  tends  to  run 
the  soil  particles  together,  thus  solidifying  or  compacting 
the  earth.  In  the  instance  of  clay  soils,  this  cementing 
action  of  the  water  may  proceed  so  far  that  the  surface  of 
the  bed  may  become  actually  hard  and  almost  non-absor- 
bent of  water.  When  soils  arrive  at  this  condition,  they 
are  incapable  of  producing  good  plants,  no  matter  how 
much  plant  food  they  may  contain.  There  is  greater  dan- 
ger of  compacting  the  soil  when  watering  from  a  hose 
than  from  a  pot.  A  good  forcing-house  soil  remains  open 
and  porous  to  the  last.  The  water  quickly  settles  away 
into  it  and  leaves  the  surface  friable  and  open.  When 
the  surface  remains  wet  and  sticky,  good  plants  are  grown 
only  with  much  difficulty.  The  physical  condition  of  the 
surface  soil  may  also  be  greatly  improved  by  fre- 
quent tillage,  for  stirring  the  soil  (an  inch  or  so  deep)  as 
often  as  it  becomes  hard  is  quite  as  necessary  in  the 
forcing-house  as  out  of  doors. 

The  entire  body  of  soil  should  be  wetted  when  water 


WATERING    FORCING-HOUSES.  67 

is  applied,  and  the  normal  condition  of  the  surface  should 
be  simply  moistness,  not  wetness.  Of  the  two  extremes, 
an  habitually  dry  surface  soil  is  much  better  than  an 
habitually  wet  one.  The  fungi  of  damping-off  breed  pro- 
fusely upon  wet  surfaces  ;  and  these  soils  are  the  ones,  too, 
upon  which  the  green  "moss"  (which  is  really  an  alga) 
thrives.  All  this  means  that  when  water  is  used  on  the 
soil,  it  should  be  applied  thoroughly,  and  that  the  un- 
der soil  should  remain  moister  than  the  surface  soil. 
Frequent  and  slight  waterings  produce  just  the  opposite 
conditions  of  distribution  of  moisture,  and  thereby  invite 
fungous  disorders  at  the  same  time  that  they  withhold 
water  from  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Benches  usually  require  closer  attention  than  beds  do, 
especially  (as  in  the  case  of  tomatoes  and  melons)  when 
they  are  subjected  to  strong  bottom  heat.  The  earth 
then  dries  out  both  on  top  and  bottom.  It  is  the  com- 
monest thing  to  find  the  soil  in  such  benches  as  dry  as  pow- 
der at  the  bottom  whilst  it  is  abundantly  moist  on  top ; 
and  the  gardener  is  generally  found  to  be  wondering  why 
his  plants  ripen  up  prematurely  and  bear  no  crops  of  con- 
sequence. The  thorough  watering  which  has  been  ad- 
vised above  —  applying  the  water  until  the  moisture  can  be 
seen  or  felt  along  some  of  the  cracks  on  the  bottom  of 
the  bench  —  will  remedy  this  common  difficulty  ;  but  the 
operator  must  be  warned  that  if  he  allows  any  water  to 
drip  through  his  bench  he  may  be  leaching  away  valuable 
plant  food.  Beds  upon  the  ground  dry  out  from  only  one 
surface,  and  they  usually  replenish  their  store  of  water  from 
the  earth  by  means  of  capillary  action.  It  is,  therefore, 
necessary  to  exercise  care  not  to  water  such  beds  too 
heavily.  With  profuse  watering,  they  soon  become 
soggy,  cold  and  "sour."  In  the  fall  and  spring  months, 
it  is  generally  necessary  to  water  forcing-house  soils  every 
day,  but  in  winter  the  operation  may  not  be  necessary 
oftener  than  once  or  twice  a  week.  There  is  particular 
danger  of  keeping  the  soil  too  wet  and  cold  in  the  long, 
6  FORC. 


68  MANAGEMENT    OF   THE   FORCING-HOUSE. 

dull  spells  of  midwinter.  In  such  weather,  plants  tend 
to  grow  soft  and  succulent,  a  tendency  which  is  aided 
by  over-watering.  If  there  is  a  sudden  rise  in  tempera- 
ture and  a  spell  of  bright  weather,  such  flabby  plants  are 
likely  to  flag,  scorch,  curl,  or  otherwise  suffer.  It  is,  there- 
fore, extremely  important  that  the  gardener  should  aim  to 
keep  his  plants  "hard"  in  these  cloudy  days. 

In  cold  weather,  the  chill  should  always  be  taken  off 
the  water  before  it  is  applied  to  soil  in  which  "warm" 
plants— like  cucumbers,  melons,  tomatoes  and  egg-plants  — 
are  growing ;  and  it  should  also  be  done  with  lettuce  if 
the  hose  water  is  colder  than  60°.  There  are  devices  (of 
which  the  so-called  Kinney  pump  is  a  good  example)  for 
drawing  hot  water  from  a  tank  or  pail  into  the  hose  in 
just  the  right  proportion  to  temper  the  water  ;  or,  if  the 
establishment  is  not  too  large,  a  watering-pot  may  be 
used.  In  large  establishments,  where  steam  power  is 
used,  an  arrangement  can  be  perfected  for  ejecting  steam 
into  the  water.  Rain  water  is  undoubtedly  the  best  water 
for  plants,  but  ordinary  spring  or  reservoir  water  is  not 
injurious,  and  is  generally  used. 


WATERING     BY    SUB-IRRIGATION. 

Recent  experiments  have  shown  that  water  may  be 
economically  and  efficiently  applied  to  forced  plants  by 
means  of  pipes  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  bench.  The 
writer's  attention  was  first  called  to  this  line  of  investi- 
gation in  1890,  when  certain  studies  were  proposed  to 
determine  what  relation  the  supply  of  soil  water  has 
to  the  transpiration  of  water  from  the  foliage  and  to  the 
consequent  rate  of  growth  of  the  plant.  Experiments 
were  begun  at  Cornell  in  1891,  but  facilities  were  not  at 
hand  to  continue  them.  In  this  same  year,  Mr.  W.  J. 
Green  published  preliminary  results  of  somewhat  similar 
and  more  important  experiments  at  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station,  and  his  investigations  were  begun  in  1890,  in 


MAKING    BEDS    FOR    SUB-IRRIGATION.  69 

advance  of  those  of  any  other  Station.  He  has  contin- 
ued these  studies  until  the  present  time,  and  he  and 
his  colleagues  have  published  various  reports  of  them. 
Professor  F.  W.  Rane  has  also  made  similar  investiga- 
tions at  the  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station,  the  fesults 
of  which  are  published  in  Bulletin  33  of  that  Station.* 
The  entire  subject  is  so  important  in  its  relation  to  the 
forcing-house  industries  that  I  shall  make  copious  extracts 
from  Mr.  Green's  last  bulletin  (No.  61,  September,  1895) 
upon  the  subject. 

Construction  of  beds  and  benches  for  sub-irrigation. — 
"A  water-tight  bed,  or  bench  bottom,  is  necessary  in  sub- 
irrigation,  and  there  are  several  methods  by  which  this 
may  be  secured.  Our  first  attempt  was  made  with 
matched  lumber  or  flooring,  the  joints  being  filled  with 
white  lead.  The  objection  to  this  method  of  construction 
is  partly  on  account  of  the  cost,  but  more  particularly 
because  of  the  fact  that  when  the  boards  swell  the  bot- 
tom bulges  upward,  displacing  the  irrigating  tile  and  caus- 
ing leakage.  It  has  been  found  that  common  barn  boards, 
or  any  rough  lumber,  answers  better,  if  the  cracks  are  bat- 
tened with  lath,  and  a  layer  of  cement  is  spread  over  the 
entire  bottom,  deep  enough  to  almost  cover  the  lath. 
About  one-third  of  good  cement  and  two-thirds  sand, 
made  quite  thin  with  water,  spread  on  to  the  depth  of 
about  half  an  inch,  and  not  allowed  to  dry  too  quickly, 
answers  the  purpose  very  well.  The  bottom  boards  will 
last  longer  than  when  the  soil  is  placed  directly  upon 
them,  but  the  supports  underneath  need  to  be  somewhat 
nearer  together  than  in  the  ordinary  method  of  con- 
struction, so  as  to  prevent  springing  of  the  boards,  which 
cracks  the  cement.  The  greatest  difficulty  is  found  in 
making  the  sides  of  the  benches  water-tight,  as  no  matter 
how  well  the  side  boards  are  nailed  to  the  bottom  boards, 

*  Rane  has  also  published  an  account  of  sub-irrigation  in  the  open 
in  Bulletin  34  of  the  New  Hampshire  Experiment  Station. 


70  MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

they  will  spring  away  and  cause  leakage.  To  obviate  this 
the  cement  needs  to  be  put  on  more  thickly  at  the  sides, 
bringing  it  up  against  the  side  boards  two  or  three  inches 
high,  and  from  one  to  two  inches  thick.  In  fact  the 
office  of  the  cement  is  to  hold  the  water,  while  the  side 
boards  protect  the  cement  and  retain  the  soil. 

"  In  case  it  is  desired  to  make  a  bed  on  the  ground, 
the  bottom  may  be  constructed  in  the  same  manner  as 
an  ordinary  cellar  bottom,  except  that  the  cement  need 
not  be  as  thick.  Sometimes  the  bottom  may  be  made 
directly  on  the  clay  sub-soil,  or  clay  may  be  brought  in 
for  the  purpose  and  no  cement  used.  There  may  be  some 
leakage  in  a  clay  bottom,  but  not  sufficient  to  do  any 
harm.  In  all  cases  there  must  be  a  level  bottom,  or  at 
least  the  slope  must  be  slight,  and  all  in  one  direction. 
Inequalities  in  the  bottom  will  prevent  the  proper  working 
of  the  irrigating  tile  and  result  in  unequal  distribution  of 
the  water,  hence  a  perfect  grade  is  essential.  In  case 
benches  are  constructed,  the  best  plan  is  to  use  indestruc- 
tible material  altogether. 

"  The  irrigating  tiles  [common  drain  tile]  may  be  laid 
lengthwise  or  crosswise  the  beds,  but  about  fifty  feet  is 
the  greatest  length  of  tile  that  will  work  satisfactorily  on 
a  level,  and  if  the  runs  are  to  be  longer  than  this,  there 
should  be  one  or  two  inches  fall  to  each  fifty  feet.  It  will 
be  necessary,  however,  in  case  there  is  a  fall,  to  check 
the  water  at  intervals  in  order  to  prevent  a  too  rapid 
flow  towards  the  lower  end.  This  may  be  easily  done 
by  inserting  strips  of  tin  into  the  joints  as  often  as  need 
be,  so  as  to  partially  intercept  the  flow,  and  to  cause  the 
water  to  run  out  at  the  joints  wherever  needed.  When 
properly  laid,  rows  of  tile  several  hundred  feet  in  length 
could  be  made  to  work  satisfactorily,  but  we  have  had 
the  best  success  with  short  runs  of  tile,  laid  crosswise  the 
benches.  Instead  of  using  elbows  of  sewer  pipe,  a 
cheaper  plan  is  to  employ  common  tile  altogether.  In 
this  case,  the  end  of  the  outer  tile  is  raised  so  as  to 


DETAILS    OF    SUB-IRRIGATING.  Jl 

come  above  the  top  of  the  bench,  in  order  to  admit  of 
inserting  the  hose  in  watering.  When  the  tiles  are  laid 
crosswise  the  benches,  several  may  be  watered  at  once  by 
means  of  a  piece  of  gas  pipe  with  holes  bored  at  suit- 
able distances.  When  the  tiles  are  laid,  they  are  simply 
placed  end  to  end.  and  no  cement  is  needed,  although  it 
is  sometimes  used  to  prevent  the  tiles  becoming  dis- 
placed in  filling  the  benches  with  soil. 

"  Gas  pipe,  with  holes  bored  at  intervals,  has  been 
used  with  success  ;  also  a  pipe,  called  'structural  iron 
pipe.'  This  differs  from  ordinary  iron  pipe  in  having  a 
slot  along  one  side.  Where  the  slot  is  nearly  closed,  so 
as  to  not  allow  the  water  to  flow  too  freely,  this  pipe 
answers  very  well,  but  2}4-inch .  drain  tiles  are  cheaper 
than  anything  else,  and  are  perfectly  satisfactory.  These 
tiles  are,  of  course,  removed  and  put  in  place  again  each 
time  the  soil  in  the  benches  is  renewed.  Another  thing 
in  favor  of  2}4  or  3-inch  tiles,  is  that  the  capacity  is  suffi- 
cient, so  that  it  may  be  filled  quickly  and  the  operator 
may  go  on  to  another  tile,  allowing  the  water  to  soak 
out  into  the  soil,  knowing  that  enough  has  been  given  to 
last  several  days ;  but  if  iron  pipes  are  used,  the  size 
must  be  small  because  of  the  cost,  and  the  watering  must 
be  more  frequent  in  consequence." 

Rane  speaks  as  follows  (Bull.  33,  W.  Virginia  Station) 
of  the  equipment  of  the  sub-irrigation  bench  :  "The  ques- 
tion of  economy,  when  considering  the  advisability  of  using 
sub-irrigated  beds,  is  justly  a  worthy  and  important  one. 
There  must  be  a  water-tight  bed  to  retain  all  the  water  in 
the  soil,  the  construction  of  which  is  necessarily  more 
expensive  than  in  the  ordinary  method  of  making  beds, 
provided  boards  are  used.  The  pipe  or  tiles  are  likewise 
an  extra  expense.  Now,  will  this  expenditure  be  realized 
from  the  advantages  gained?  The  cost  of  raw  material, 
for  example,  in  two  houses,  each  50  ft.  long  and  20  ft. 
wide,  one  being  arranged  for  surface  and  the  other  for 
under-surface  watering,  would  be  about  as  follows : 


72  MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

SURFACE.  UNDER-SURFACH. 

Center  bed   40x8  ft.  @   $12  Center   bed   40x8  ft.  @   $25 

per  M $3  84        per  M $8  oo 

2  Side  benches  50x4  ft.    @  2   Side  benches  50x4  ft.   @ 

$12  per  M 4  80       $25  per  M 10  oo 

182  ft.  Sideboards  @  $20  .   .     3  64    182  ft.  Sideboards  ®  $20  .   .  3  64 

150  ft.  Quarter  round  @  i  ct.  i  50 

320  ft.  Tile  @  |i8  per  M  .  .  5  76 

White  lead i  10 

Total $12  28        Total $30  oo 

"The  difference  between  the  first  cost  of  the  beds 
in  the  two  houses  is,  therefore,  $17.72.  Dividing  this 
amount  by  two,  since  the  beds  will  certainly  last  two 
years,  we  have  $8.86  as  the  actual  yearly  expense  of  the 
one  house  over  the  other.  The  fact  of  this  small  expendi- 
ture in  comparison  with  the  great  advantages  derived 
from  it,  establishes  its  economic  importance  and  thorough 
practicability. 

"Lead  or  iron  pipe  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  tiles, 
but  are  not  as  practicable  when  a  quantity  is  to  be  used. 
They  are  more  expensive,  and  better  adapted  to  smaller 
areas.  Lead  pipe  costs  6  cents  per  pound,  the  number  cf 
pounds  to  the  foot  varying  according  to  the  quality.  It 
gives  very  satisfactory  results,  and  can  be  used  indefi- 
nitely. The  cost  of  iron  pipe  varies  according  to  the 
size.  Although  it  is  less  expensive  than  the  lead,  it  rusts 
easily,  and  can  not  be  relied  upon  after  one  or  two  sea- 
sons' use.  That  used  the  past  season,  after  having  been 
cleaned,  is  in  fair  condition  for  use  this  year." 

Experiments  with  lettuce  and  other  plants.  —  After 
various  preliminary  tests  at  the  Ohio  Station,  "three 
houses,  each  20x100  ft.,  have  been  devoted  almost  wholly 
to  lettuce,  nearly  all  of  which  has  been  sub-irrigated.  A 
middle  section  in  each  house  has  been  reserved  for  sur- 
face watering,  and  the  end  benches  are  divided,  half 
being  watered  by  one  method  and  half  by  the  other. 
Incidentally,  this  arrangement  may  be  referred  to  as  af- 
fording an  opportunity  to  note  the  behavior  of  plants  in 


SUB-IRRIGATION    FOR    LETTUCE. 


73 


houses  where  the  moisture  in  the  air,  in  addition  to  the 
normal  quantity,  comes  almost  wholly  from  plant  tran- 
spiration. 

"In  the  following  table,  the  results  with  a  number  ol 
varieties  are  given.  This  was  not  intended  as  a  variety 
experiment,  as  those  in  the  list  are  not  comparable  in  the 
manner  presented,  since  some  are  varieties  which  form 
heads  while  others  do  not.  All  that  it  is  intended  to 
show  is  the  relative  development  of  each  variety  by  the 
two  methods  of  watering.  In  this  experiment  each  lot  is 
carried  through  the  entire  season  of  growth  by  the  method 
indicated.  That  is,  the  sub-irrigated  plants  were  treated 
in  that  manner  from  the  time  the  seed  was  sown  until 
the  crop  was  harvested.  The  surface-watered  plants,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  surface-watered  during  their  entire 
season  of  growth.  This  is  referred  to  particularly  be- 
cause it  is  not  the  plan  which  has  been  followed  in  the 
greater  number  of  our  experiments.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  average  gain  in  favor  of  the  sub-irrigated  plots  was 
about  100  per  cent. — 

THE   RESULTS    OF    SURFACE-  AND    SUB-IRRIGATION    WITH 
TEN   VARIETIES    OF    LETTUCE. 


Surface-watered  . 

Sub-irrigated. 

Number  of 

Weight, 

Number  of 

Weight, 

plants. 

ounces. 

plants. 

ounces. 

Chicago  Forcing    .   .   . 
Denver  Market      .   .   . 

5 

8 

5 
5 

22 
12 

Tilton's  White  Star      . 

5 

ii 

5 

32 

Henderson's  N.  Y.   .   . 

22 

10 

40 

Hanson              .... 

18 

10 

48 

Grand  Rapids      .... 

25 

So 

25 

208 

Iceberg           
Big  Boston     
Large  Boston 
Rawson's  Hot-House  . 

15 
15 

10 

15 

32 

21 
23 

15 
15 

IO 

15 

47 
Si 
31 
41 

"In    the    next    table,   the    separate    results    of   15    ex- 


74 


MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


periments  are  given.  *  *  *  No  effort  has  been  made 
to  select  examples,  further  than  to  secure  a  fair  average, 
rather  than  to  present  the  highest  or  the  lowest.  The 
average  gain  of  the  sub-irrigated  over  the  surface-watered 
in  the  above  cases  was  a  little  more  than  40  per  cent. 
This  increase  in  weight  was  made  in  a  little  more  than 
six  weeks,  or  from  the  time  the  plants  were  set  in  the 
benches  to  the  end  of  the  experiments.  That  is,  all  of 
the  plants  were  sub-irrigated  while  growing  in  the  flats, 
or  during  about  half  of  their  period  of  growth,  and  not  un- 
til they  were  planted  in  the  benches  was  surface-watering 
commenced.  This  is  a  less  favorable  showing  for  sub- 
irrigation  than  is  made  in  the  last  table,  by  the  plan 
above  described,  of  carrying  the  plants  through  the  entire 
period  of  growth  by  the  respective  methods  of  watering. — 


RESULTS    IN     FIFTEEN     SUB-IRRIGATION     EXPERIMENTS 
WITH    GRAND    RAPIDS     LETTUCE. 


Experiment. 

Surface-  watered. 

Sub-irrigated  . 

Number   of 
plants. 

Weight, 
ounces. 

Number  of 
plants. 

Weight, 
ounces. 

I     
II     
Ill 

140 

IOO 

75 

IOO 

55 

IOO 

25 
25 
35 
15° 
107 
144 

1 

474 
374 
287 
299 
297 
545 
132 

121 
212 

477 

iil 
% 

156 

140 

100 

75 

IOO 

55 

IOO 

25 

25 

35 
»5° 
107 
144 

,1 

637 

III 
453 
340 
602 
176 
130 
242 
572 
644 
337 

HI 
452 

IV     .... 
V     
VI     

VII     
VIII     
IX        .   . 
X     . 
XI     
XII     

XIII    . 
XIV    . 

XV 

"In  the  above  examples,  the  surface- and  sub-irrigated 
plots  were  side  by  side,  but  a  more  satisfactory  plan  is  to 


SUB-IRRIGATION    FOR    LETTUCE. 


75 


alternate  the  plots.  This,  however,  cannot  be  extended 
very  far,  as  the  difference  in  heat  in  the  two  ends  of  a  house 
is  considerable.  A  very  good  plan  is  to  take  a  section  of  a 
bed  in  the  middle  of  a  house  and  treat  by  one  method  of 
watering,  while  two  sections  of  the  same  size  on  either  side 
are  treated  according  to  the  other  method.  This  has  been 
done  in  several  cases,  and  some  examples  are  given  in  the 
third  table.  In  these  experiments,  the  plants  were  treated 
in  the  same  manner  as  those  in  the  experiments  above  men- 
tioned, i.  e.,  all  were  sub-irrigated  until  they  were  planted 
in  the  benches.  After  that  time  sections  A  and  C  were  sub- 
irrigated,  and  section  B  was  surface-watered.  The  average 
gain  of  the  sub-irrigated  plots  over  the  surface-watered  was 
about  38  per  cent,  or  very  nearly  the  same  as  the  average 
of  the  15  experiments  in  the  second  table.— 


COMPARISON   OF    SURFACE-WATERED    SECTIONS    WITH    SUB- 
IRRIGATED    SECTIONS  ON   EITHER   SIDE,    75   GRAND 
RAPIDS   PLANTS   IN   EACH   SECTION. 


Section  A,  sub- 
irrigated. 

Section   B,  sur- 
face-watered. 

Section  C,  sub- 
irrigated. 

Experiment     I  .  . 
Experiment    II  .. 
Experiment  III  .   . 

Weight,  385  ozs. 

487    " 
308    " 

Weight,  325  ozs. 
"        329    " 
229   " 

Weight,  420  ozs. 

345    " 

"  In  all  of  the  experiments  thus  far  referred  to,  but 
one  point  has  been  considered,  and  that  is  the  increase  in 
weight  by  sub-irrigation.  Aside  from  the  relative  preva- 
lency  of  disease  in  plants  treated  by  the  two  methods,  there 
are  but  few  practical  questions. 

"Although  not  a  matter  of  much  practical  importance, 
some  interest  attaches  to  the  fact  that  sub-irrigated  lettuce 
is  earlier  than  that  grown  in  the  ordinary  manner.  It  does 
not  really  come  to  maturity  any  earlier  if  by  that  is  meant 
the  stage  at  which  the  plants  cease  to  increase  in  weight. 


j6  MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

caused  by  the  dying  of  the  lower  leaves,  but  it  does  reach  a 
marketable  size  sooner.  It  is  customary  to  allow  the  plants 
to  stand  as  long  as  they  continue  to  improve,  but  in  case  it 
is  desirable  to  cut  before  that  time  it  will  be  found  that  the 
sub-irrigated  lettuce  will  be  a  week  to  ten  days  ahead  of  the 
other.  Should  the  size  to  which  surface-watered  lettuce  can 
be  grown  be  set  as  a  standard,  and  the  sub-irrigated  cut 
when  it  reaches  that  size,  it  will  be  found  that  the  latter  will 
be  ready  four  to  six  weeks  from  the  time  of  planting  in  the 
beds,  and  the  surface-watered  must  be  allowed  to  remain 
from  six  to  eight  weeks  to  attain  the  same  size  Whether 
we  reckon  in  this  manner,  or  by  the  actual  weight  of  the 
crops  harvested  during  the  season,  there  is  a  gain  in  one 
season  of  about  one  crop  by  sub-irrigation.  Both  the  yield 
and  price  vary,  of  course  ;  but  for  a  house  20  x  100  feet  the 
difference  in  a  single  season  between  surface-  and  sub- irriga- 
tion might  safely  be  estimated  at  from  $50  to  $100.  The 
latter  figure  might  not  be  reached,  except  on  very  heavy 
clay  soil,  and  on  soil  specially  adapted  to  lettuce  the  dif- 
ference might  be  even  less  than  the  lowest,  but  experience 
has  shown  that  it  is  more  likely  to  exceed  than  to  fall  below 
$50.  The  difference  is  likely  to  be  greater  with  new  begin- 
ners than  with  those  of  experience,  as  more  skill  is  required 
to  manage  a  crop  by  surface-  than  by  sub-irrigation.  It  is  an 
established  fact  that  good  head  lettuce  cannot  be  grown  on 
heavy  soil  by  surface  watering,  and  the  same  is,  in  a  meas- 
ure, true  of  all  varieties.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  sub- 
irrigation  greatly  enlarges  the  possibilities  of  lettuce  culture 
under  glass.  It  not  only  makes  the  work  easier  for  new 
beginners,  but  it  makes  it  possible  to  use  soil  that  would 
otherwise  be  precluded.  More  than  that,  it  solves  the  prob- 
lem of  meeting  competition  from  the  south,  which  competi- 
tion bids  lair  to  ruin  the  business  of  vegetable  forcing  at  the 
north,  unless  improved  methods  are  adopted  by  northern 
gardeners." 

Very  similar  results  with  lettuce  have  been  secured  by 
Rane,  who  also  found  much  less  trouble  with  rot  in  sub- 


RESULTS    OF    SUB-IRRIGATION.  77 

irrigated  beds.  "The  lettuce  rot,  which  appeared  to  a 
marked  extent  in  the  surface-watered  beds,"  he  writes, 
"was  apparently  absent  in  the  sub-irrigated  beds.  The 
disease  was  first  noticed  at  time  of  marketing,  at  which  time 
it  could  not  be  detected  in  the  other  beds.  During  the 
growth  of  the  second  crop  it  became  very  troublesome,  and 
some  of  the  varieties  in  the  surface-watered  beds  required 
marketing  before  they  were  fully  grown,  while  in  the  under- 
surface-watered  beds  the  disease  was  completely  held  in 
check." 

Rane  also  found  "  marked  superiority  "  in  sub-irrigation 
for  tomatoes,  "no  marked  difference"  in  turnip-rooted 
radishes,  "  very  beneficial "  effects  in  long-rooted  radishes, 
"a  slight  difference"  in  earliness  in  spinach,  "no  marked 
difference"  in  turnip-rooted  beets,  and  "very  marked" 
gain  in  maturity  of  parsley  from  seed  but  "  no  perceptible 
difference  in  its  growth  "  after  the  plants  in  the  surface- 
irrigated  soil  "once  reached  maturity." 

Conclusions.  —  Green  makes  the  following  points  of  ad- 
vantage of  sub-irrigation  in  glass  houses  : 

' '  Watering  by  sub-irrigation  in  the  greenhouse  is  more 
cheaply  done  than  by  the  ordinary  method. 

' '  Watering  by  sub-irrigation  in  the  greenhouse  is  more 
efficiently  done  than  by  the  ordinary  method. 

"Where  sub-irrigation  is  practiced  in  the  greenhouse, 
the  soil  does  not  become  compacted  as  by  surface  water- 
ings, but  retains  its  original  loose,  friable  condition,  even 
without  frequent  stirring,  nor  does  it  become  mossy,  water- 
logged and  sour. 

' '  Plants  are  less  liable  to  suffer  from  over  watering 
and  diseases  by  sub-irrigation  than  where  the  water  is 
applied  to  the  surface. 

"All  classes  of  plants  which  may  be  grown  upon 
greenhouse  benches  thrive  better  by  sub-irrigation  than 
by  the  ordinary  method  of  watering." 

Rane  writes  as  follows:  "The  saving  of  labor  through 
sub-irrigation  is  almost  inestimable.  The  expenditure  of 


78  MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

time  in  watering  was  as  follows :  In  the  case  of  under- 
surface  irrigation,  the  water  was  dipped  out  of  a  tank  and 
poured  into  a  funnel,  through  which  it  entered  the  various 
portions  of  the  bed.  On  the  other  hand,  in  surface  irriga- 
tion, the  water  was  dipped  out  and  applied  by  a  sprinkling 
can,  containing  either  a  rose  spray  or  a  spout  long  enough 
to  reach  all  sections  of  the  bed.  In  the  former  case,  the  size 
of  the  plants  did  not  matter,  while  in  the  latter,  the  more 
mature  the  crop,  the  more  time  it  required  for  watering. 
Again,  the  sub-irrigated  beds  did  not  require  watering  over 
once  or,  at  the  outside,  twice  a  week ;  while,  generally 
speaking,  the  other  beds  were  watered  daily. 

"The  idea  that  a  water-tight  bed  is  detrimental  to  plant 
growth  on  account  of  lack  of  drainage  is  overcome,  we  be- 
lieve, in  the  fact  that  the  pipe  or  tiles  receive  the  excess  of 
water,  which,  in  a  bed  not  water-tight,  would  leak  out  at  the 
bottom,  thus  making  it  serve  a  double  purpose.  If  the  soil 
contains  too  much  moisture,  it  serves  as  a  reservoir  ;  if  not 
enough,  it  imparts  the  amount  necessary  for  good  condi- 
tions. In  either  case,  the  pipe  or  tiles  act  as  a  safety-valve. 
These  openings  underneath  the  soil  allow  free  access  of  air, 
render  plant  food  digestible,  and  act  as  a  drain  to  water- 
soaked  soil.  In  view  of  these  results,  we  feel  safe  in  saying 
that  under-surface  watering  is  a  pronounced  success." 

VENTILATING    AND    SHADING. 

The  one  imperative  thing  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  ventila- 
ting glass  houses  is  to  avoid  draughts.  This  means  that 
ventilators  should  be  many  and  small  rather  than  few  and 
large,  for  thereby  the  warm  air  can  be  discharged  from 
houses  without  much  danger  of  an  in-rush  of  cold  air, 
because  the  ventilator  sash  need  be  lifted  only  very  little. 
Houses  should  be  cooled  by  letting  out  heated  air  rather 
than  by  letting  in  cold  air,  although  it  is  impossible  to 
wholly  exclude  the  outside  air  when  ventilators  are  opened. 
In  forcing-houses  of  ordinary  size,  sufficient  ventilation  can 


VENTILATING    FORCING-HOUSES.  79 

be  secured  by  means  of  sash  at  the  peak  alone,  thus  obvi- 
ating the  danger  of  currents  of  cold  air  which  arises  when 
there  are  ventilating  sashes  in  both  the  sides  and  top.  In 
very  large  houses,  particularly  in  those  of  the  shed  roof 
pattern,  it  may  be  necessary  to  place  ventilating  openings 
in  the  walls,  more  especially  on  the  back  or  high  side  of  the 
house.  Ventilating  openings  should  be  removed  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  plants  in  order  to  reduce  the  danger  of 
cold  draughts  to  the  utmost. 

Particular  care  should  be  taken  with  the  ventilating  dur- 
ing dull,  cold  weather,  when  the  plants  become  soft  and  are 
very  quickly  injured  by  draughts.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
ventilate  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  securing  fresh  air,  but 
to  regulate  the  temperature  of  the  house.  When  the  house 
becomes  over  wet  and  close,  it  is  often  necessary  to  ventilate 
for  the  purpose  of  drying  it  out.  The  larger  the  house,  the 
less,  as  a  rule,  is  the  necessity  of  ventilating. 

Houses  are  shaded  to  prevent  the  sun  from  scorching  the 
plants.  The  shading  is  supplied  by  coating  the  glass  with 
some  white  covering,  like  whitewash.  The  necessity  for 
shading  may  be  largely  obviated  by  not  allowing  the  plants 
to  become  over-vigorous,  sappy,  and  soft.  The  greatest 
danger  from  sun-scald  occurs  after  a  spell  of  dark  and  wet 
weather.  It  is  then  essential  to  keep  the  house  rather  cool 
when  the  weather  brightens,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to 
shade  it.  Plants  which  are  suffering  from  root-galls  or  other 
disease  of  the  roots,  or  those  which  are  growing  in  very 
leachy  soils  or  on  very  shallow  benches,  may  have  to  be 
shaded  in  order  to  check  the  evaporation  from  their  tops 
and  thereby  prevent  them  from  wilting.  Many  plants  thrive 
best  under  shaded  roofs,  but  amongst  the  forced  vegetables 
there  is  only  the  English  or  frame  cucumber  which  appears 
to  thrive  best  under  a  tempered  light.  This  plant  was 
developed  in  the  humid  and  soft  climate  of  England,  and  it 
seeems  to  be  impatient  of  our  violent  suns  ;  yet  it  may  be 
made  to  withstand  the  sun  if  grown  rather  slowly. 

For  plants   which  require  permanent  shading,  a   paint 


80  MANAGEMENT   OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

made  of  naphtha  and  white  lead  may  be  put  upon  the 
glass.  This  is  removed  with  difficulty.  For  forcing-houses, 
which  only  infrequently  need  shading,  an  ordinarily  slaked- 
lime-and-water  whitewash,  which  can  be  both  applied  and 
washed  off  by  means  of  a  spray  pump,  is  the  best  covering. 
A  still  less  durable  wash  is  made  of  flour  and  water. 

THE    ELECTRIC    LIGHT    FOR    FORCING-HOUSES. 

Can  the  electric  light  stand  for  sunlight?  Can  it  be 
profitably  used  at  night  and  in  dull  weather  to  hasten  the 
growth  of  plants  ?  These  questions  have  received  greater 
attention  in  the  United  States  than  elsewhere  in  the 
world.  Experiments  have  been  made  at  the  Cornell 
Experiment  Station,*  the  West  Virginia  Station,  f  and 
by  W.  W.  Rawson,  an  extensive  vegetable  forcer  at  Bos- 
ton. It  is  found  that  the  electric  light,  both  the  arc  and 
the  incandescent,  can  be  advantageously  used  upon  let- 
tuce to  piece  out  the  sunlight  in  midwinter.  In  various 
florists'  plants  it  also  produces  earlier  bloom.  It  is  usu- 
ally injurious,  or  has  only  negative  results,  upon  radishes, 
peas,  carrots,  beets,  spinach  and  cauliflowers. 

Upon  lettuce,  the  value  of  the  electric  light  in  hasten- 
ing maturity  is  emphatic.  Mr.  Rawson  saves  about  a 
week  upon  each  of  his  three  winter  crops  by  the  use  of 
three  ordinary  street  lamps  hung  over  a  house  370  ft. 
long  and  33  ft.  wide. 

At  Cornell,  the  results  upon  lettuce  have  been  marked 
in  many  tests,  and  the  gains  in  maturity  have  been  as 
much  as  two  weeks.  It  is  found  in  every  instance  that  the 
naked  arc  light  — that  is,  a  light  without  a  globe— hung 

•Bailey,  Bulletins  30  (Aug.  1891),  42  (Sept.  1892),  55  (July  1893);  also, 
"  Electricity  and  Plant-Growing,"  in  Trans.  Mass.  Hort.  Soc'y,  1894. 
Experiments  with  electric  currents  upon  plants,  by  Clarence  D.  Walker, 
will  be  found  in  Bulletins  16  (1892)  and  23  (1893)  of  the  Mass.  Hatch 
Exp.  Sta. 

tRane,  "  Electro- Horticulture  with  the  Incandescent  Lamp,"  Bulle- 
tin 37  (July,  1894). 


POLLINATING   THE    FLOWERS.  8 1 

inside  the  house,  injures  the  plants  which  are  within  a 
few  feet  of  it,  and  tends  to  make  all  plants  within  reach 
of  its  rays  run  too  quickly  to  seed.  The  use  of  a  clear 
glass  globe,  however,  overcomes  all  injury.  The  best 
results  are  to  be  obtained  by  placing  the  light  —  either 
naked  or  surrounded  by  a  clear  globe  —  a  few  feet  above 
the  roof.  An  ordinary  2,ooo-candle-power  arc  light  —  such 
as  is  commonly  used  for  street  lighting  —  will  exert  a 
marked  effect  upon  lettuce  for  a  radius  of  75  to  100  feet, 
if  the  roof  is  clean  and  the  framework  of  the  house  is 
light.  The  light  may  be  allowed  to  burn  all  night.  In- 
candescent lamps  have  the  same  influence  as  arc  lights, 
but  to  a  less  degree.  It  will  be  found  profitable  to  use 
the  electric  light  for  plant-growing,  if  at  all,  only  in  the 
three  or  four  months  of  midwinter. 


POLLINATION. 

It  is  generally  necessary  to  transfer  the  pollen  by  nand 
in  fruit-bearing  forced  vegetables.  The  methods  are  fully 
explained  under  the  discussions  of  the  various  vegetables. 
In  order  to  secure  the  pollen,  the  house  should  be  dry 
and  warm.  Upon  a  bright  morning,  when  the  flowers  need 
pollinating,  the  gardener  should  withhold  water  and  let 
the  foliage  and  walks  become  thoroughly  dried  off,  and 
before  midday  the  pollen  will  usually  discharge  readily. 

Bees  may  sometimes  be  utilized  as  pollen-carriers  in 
spring  and  fall,  when  they  can  forage  in  and  out  of  the 
house  as  they  choose,  but  they  are  impracticable  in  the 
winter  time  in  houses  of  ordinary  size.  In  very  large 
houses,  in  which  there  is  abundant  room  for  the  bees  to 
work,  and  where  ventilators  do  not  need  to  be  opened  so 
much,  bees  may  sometimes  be  used  to  advantage.  Three 
or  four  swarms  should  pollinate  a  house  40x400  ft.  The 
bees  will  have  to  be  fed.  In  general,  however,  bees  are 
found  to  be  unsatisfactory.  The  following  account  of  an 


82  MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

experiment  in  this  direction  at  Cornell  (Lodeman,  Bulle- 
tin 96)  will  indicate  some  of  the  perverseness  of  these 
insects : 

"Much  has  been  written  regarding  the  value  of  bees 
in  greenhouses.  It  is  said  that  all  hand-pollinations  may 
be  dispensed  with  if  desired,  as  the  bees  will  work  among 
the  blossoms,  and  thus  cause  the  fruit  to  set. 

"During  November,  1893,  a  hive  of  bees  was  received, 
and  on  the  23rd  day  of  the  month  they  were  set  free  in 
the  brightest  of  all  the  station  houses.  The  hive  was 
placed  at  the  south  end  of  the  house,  and  the  bees  were 
kept  constantly  supplied  with  proper  food.  At  this  time 
the  house  was  filled  with  tomato  plants  in  full  bloom,  and 
it  was  hoped  the  bees  would  work  among  them  so  that 
the  tedious  but  very  necessary  hand-pollination  of  the 
flowers  need  no  longer  be  practiced.  The  bees  evidently 
did  not  catch  the  idea,  however,  for  if  there  was  one 
place  in  the  house  which  they  did  not  visit  it  was  the 
tomato  blossom.  They  spent  most  of  their  time  in  bump- 
ing their  heads  against  the  glass  sides  and  roof  of  the 
house,  and  at  every  opportunity,  when  the  ventilators 
were  raised  a  little,  they  took  pains  to  pass  through 
them,  even  though  the  mercury  stood  far  below  the 
freezing  point  out  of  doors.  The  bees  which  did  not 
succeed  in  finding  the  ventilators  continued  to  fly  against 
the  glass,  leaving  it  only  for  the  purpose  of  withdrawing 
far  enough  to  get  a  start  for  a  fresh  attack.  In  this  way 
the  busy  bee  finally  wore  herself  out,  and,  in  the  course 
of  three  weeks,  those  less  ambitious  individuals  which  did 
not  fly  heavenward  in  the  friendless  atmosphere  of  De- 
cember, were  scattered  as  corpses  along  the  sides  of  the 
house  close  to  the  glass ;  and  thus  ended  the  attempt  to 
make  these  little  creatures  useful  in  midwinter.  It  may 
be  said  that  bees  do  not  like  tomato  flowers,  but  our 
specimens  took  no  pains  to  find  out  whether  they  liked 
them  or  not.  It  is  probable  that  every  bee  in  the  swarm 
went  to  his  honeyless  bourne  without  ever  having  dis- 


PESTS   AND    DISEASES.  83 

covered  whether  the   plants  were  tomatoes  or  buckwheat, 
or,  in  fact,  if  there  were  any   plants  at  all  in  the  house." 


INSECTS    AND   DISEASES. 

Insects  and  fungi  are  amongst  the  best  of  all  educa- 
tors. They  force  the  gardener  to  learn,  whether  he  will 
or  not.  They  are  always  the  curse  of  poor  gardeners.  It 
occasionally  happens  that  the  very  best  gardeners  are 
overtaken  by  some  dire  pest,  but  it  is  the  exception, 
not  the  rule.  The  gardener  boasts  that  the  glass  house 
affords  him  the  means  of  keeping  plants  directly  under 
control.  By  the  same  means,  he  should  also  keep  the 
pests  under  control.  There  is  a  constant  struggle  for 
mastery  between  the  plant,  the  bug,  the  fungus,  and  the 
man,  and  it  often  happens  that  the  combatant  which  is 
the  biggest,  oldest  and  knows  the  most  turns  out  to  be 
the  slave  of  all  the  others. 

The  one  universal  and  invariable  precaution  against  in- 
sect and  fungous  attack  is  this :  Keep  the  plants  in  a  con- 
stant and  uniform  state  of  normal  and  healthy  develop- 
ment. Avoid  all  extremes  of  temperature  and  moisture, 
and  be  particularly  careful  in  this  regard  in  the  dark 
weather  of  winter.  One  is  growing  cucumbers,  for  ex- 
ample. He  is  in  a  hurry  for  the  crop.  The  season  is 
advancing.  A  dull  spell  comes  on.  He  keeps  his  house 
close  and  waters  freely.  The  plants  respond  quickly. 
The  stems  lengthen  and  thicken  and  the  leaves  expand 
to  enormous  size.  Presently  the  sun  appears.  He  must 
have  air.  He  swings  open  the  ventilators.  The  cold  air 
rushes  in  and  stirs  the  foliage.  Two  or  three  days  later, 
he  may  look  for  a  well-established  case  of  mildew ! 

If  he  is  growing  lettuce  in  the  same  fashion,  his  plants 
appear  to  suddenly  begin  to  collapse.  The  lower  leaves 
rot,  and  presently  the  crop  is  worthless.  In  less  than  a 
week,  one  January,  the  writer  lost  an  entire  house  of 
most  beautiful  lettuce  by  just  such  management.  If  he  is 

7    FORC. 


84  MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

growing  tomatoes,  the  plants  become  sappy  and  con- 
gested under  such  treatment,  and  may  actually  contract 
the  dropsy,  as  is  shown  in  the  chapter  upon  tomato  forc- 
ing. In  a  spell  of  dull  weather  in  winter,  the  gardener 
must  be  particularly  careful  to  keep  his  houses  dry  and 
sweet,  for  then  the  mildews  develop  rapidly. 

The  houses  should  be  kept  sweet  and  clean.  All  trim- 
mings from  the  plants  should  be  carried  out  of  the  estab- 
lishment. The  soil  should  be  changed  every  year,  particu- 
larly on  benches  (as  explained  on  page  51).  If  there 
have  been  serious  infections  of  fungi  or  insects,  the 
framework  of  the  house  should  be  painted  during  sum- 
mer, or  else  sprayed  or  washed  with  kerosene.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  filling  the  benches  with  in- 
fested soil.  It  is  always  safest  not  to  select  soil  from 
fields  which  have  recently  grown  the  same  kind  of  crops 
which  it  is  desired  to  grow  in  the  house  ;  and  if  the 
forced  plants  have  been  badly  infected,  the  soil  in  which 
they  are  grown  should  not  be  used  again  for  forcing  pur- 
poses. 

All  possible  precautions  having  been  taken,  the  gar- 
dener may  next  exercise  himself  to  devise  means  of  kill- 
ing the  pests.  For  aphis  and  the  like,  he  will  fumigate 
with  some  tobacco  preparation  ;  for  mealy-bugs  he  will 
use  a  fine  hard  stream  of  water  from  a  hose,  a  proceed- 
ing which  will  greatly  upset  their  domestic  affairs  ;  for  red 
spiders  and  mites  he  will  syringe  the  foliage  thoroughly 
with  water  above  and  below  on  all  bright  days  ;  for  mil- 
dews he  will  evaporate  sulphur  or  dust  it  on  the  plants  ; 
for  rusts  he  will  spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture  ;  for  damp- 
ing-off  (and  "canker"  at  the  root)  he  will  dry  off  the 
surface  of  the  soil  and  mix  a  little  sulphur  or  charcoal 
into  it  ;*  for  the  nematode  or  root-gall  (the  work  of  which 


*See  Atkinson's  monograph  of  damping-off,  Bulletin  94,  Cornell  Exp. 
Sta.  (now  out  of  print),  for  an  account  of  the  various  fungi  concerned 
in  the  trouble.  The  advice  which  Atkinson  jjives  for  the  treatment  of 


THE    DAMPING-OFF   FUNGI.  85 

is  shown  in  Fig.  29,  page  87),  which  is  one  of  the  most 
serious  of  all  greenhouse  pests,  he  will  remove  the  soil, 
paint  the  benches  with  lye  or  kerosene,  and  thereafter  use 
only  soil  which  has  been  very  thoroughly  frozen  since  a 
crop  was  grown  in  it  (a  proceeding  which  is  practically 
impossible  in  solid  beds). 

damping-off  is  here  reprinted  because  the  disorder  is  a  very  common 
and  serious  one,  although  it  is  not  particularly  germane  to  the  subject 
of  the  forcing  of  vegetables : 

"  In  the  treatment  of  this  trouble,  especial  attention  must  be  given 
to  the  environment  of  the  plants  and  those  conditions  which  favor  the 
rapid  development  of  the  parasites.  These  conditions  are  known  in 
most  cases  to  be  high  temperature  accompanied  by  a  large  moisture 
content  of  the  soil,  humid  atmosphere,  insufficient  light,  and  close 
apartments,  and  soil  which  has  become  thoroughly  infested  with  the 
fungi  by  the  development  of  the  disease  in  plants  growing  in  the  same. 
Some  excellent  notes  on  the  treatment  of  the  disease  by  gardeners  and 
horticulturists  are  given  in  the  American  Garden  for  1890,  by  Meehan, 
Massey,  Maynard,  Watson,  Lonsdale,  Gardiner,  and  Bailey,  and  a 
short  description  of  the  potting-bed  fungus  (Artotrogits  Debaryan-us) 
by  Seymour.  The  principal  lines  of  treatment  suggested  there  from  the 
practical  experience  of  the  writers  are  as  follows  : 

"When  cuttings  are  badly  diseased,  they  should  be  taken  out,  the 
soil  removed,  benches  cleaned  and  fresh  sand  introduced,  when  only 
the  sound  cuttings  should  be  reset.  For  cuttings  is  recommended  a 
fairly  cool  house,  and  confined  air  should  be  avoided  in  all  cases.  As 
much  sunlight  as  possible  should  be  given  as  the  plants  will  stand 
without  wilting.  When  close  atmosphere  is  necessary,  guard  against  too 
much  moisture,  and  keep  an  even  temperature.  The  soil  should  be 
kept  as  free  as  possible  from  decaying  vegetable  matter.  This  is  a 
very  important  matter,  for  several  of  the  most  troublesome  of  the  para- 
sites grow  readily  on  such  decaying  vegetable  matter,  and  in  many 
cases  obtain  such  vigorous  growth  that  they  can  readily  attack  a  per- 
fectly healthy  plant  which  could  resist  the  fungus  if  the  vegetable 
matter  had  not  been  there  to  give  it  such  a  start.  Soil  which  is  dry 
beneath  and  wet  on  top,  as  results  from  insufficient  watering  by  a 
sprinkler,  favors  the  disease  more  than  uniformity  of  moisture  through- 
out the  soil. 

"  In  seed  beds,  use  fresh  sandy  soil  free  from  decaying  matter. 
Avoid  over-watering,  especially  in  dull  weaUicr,  shade  in  the  middle 
part  of  the  day  only,  and  keep  temperature  as  low  as  the  plants  will 
stand. 

"  If  the  seedlings  are  badly  diseased  it  will  be  wise  to  discard 
them  and  start  the  bed  anew.  In  the  early  stages,  however,  they  can 
frequently  be  saved  by  loosening  the  soil  to  dry  it,  and  placing  the 
pots  in  sunny  places  at  such  times  as  they  will  not  wilt.  Some 
advocate  sprinkling  sulphur  on  the  soil,  and  in  some  cases  sulphur 
at  the  rate  of  i  to  30  is  mixed  in  the  soil  before  sowing,  with 
good  effect.  When  the  beds  are  badly  infested,  Humphrey  (Kept. 
Mass.  State  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  1890)  advocates  the  entire  removal  of  the 
soil,  whitewashing  the  beds,  and  the  introduction  of  fresh  soil. 

"  In  houses  heated  by  steam  if  it  were  possible  to  have,  without 
too  great  expense,  a  steam  chest,  where  the  pots  and  seed  pans 
which  are  used  could  be  placed  and  the  soil  thoroughly  steamed  for 


86  MANAGEMENT   OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

Methods  of  controlling  greenhouse  pests  by  fumiga- 
tion.*— The  insects  and  the  fungi  which  seriously  injure 
greenhouse  plants  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  but  if 
allowed  to  develop  unchecked  they  are  capable  of  entirely 
ruining  every  susceptible  plant  in  the  houses.  There  are 
some  plants  which  are  almost  entirely  free  from  such 
attacks,  but  they  form  isolated  exceptions  to  a  very  gen- 
eral rule.  All  who  have  had  any  experience  in  growing 
plants  under  glass  know  that  diseases  are  sure  to  appear, 
and  that  insects  will  originate  apparently  from  nothing. 
Indeed,  so  certain  are  these  pests  to  appear  that  every 
thorough  gardener  is  at  all  times  prepared  for  them,  or 
even  takes  steps  towards  their  destruction  before  they 
have  been  seen.  Fortunately,  he  has  at  his  command 
abundant  means  of  protecting  his  plants,  and  houses  in 
which  insects  or  fungi  are  found  in  large  numbers  are 
silent  but  convincing  witnesses  of  bad  management  and 
neglect.  When  a  greenhouse  has  once  become  thor- 
oughly infested,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  rid  the  plants 
of  their  parasites,  and  it  requires  constant  and  prolonged 
attention  to  bring  about  this  result ;  and  even  when  this 
has  been  done,  the  plants  will  in  many  cases  have  be- 
come so  weakened  that  they  will  scarcely  repay  the  time 
and  labor  employed  in  saving  them.  The  care  of  plants 
should  begin  before  they  are  attacked,  and  this  care 
should  be  given  uninterruptedly.  By  treating  apparently 
uninfested  plants  many  invisible  enemies  may  be  de- 
several  hours,  it  could  be  sterilized,  and  the  finer  and  more  delicate 
seedlings  be  grown  then  with  little  danger  if  subsequent  care  was 
used  to  not  introduce  soil  from  the  beds.  In  testing  the  virulence 
of  the  Artotrogus  Debaryanus,  and  of  the  sterile  fungus,  several 
experiments  have  been  made  by  steaming  pots  of  earth,  growing 
seedlings  in  them  and  then  inoculating  some  of  the  seedlings  with 
the  fungus  while  other  pots  were  kept  as  checks,  and  all  were  under 
like  conditions  with  respect  to  moisture,  temperature,  etc.  The  seed- 
lings which  were  not  supplied  with  the  fungus  remained  healthy, 
while  those  supplied  with  the  fungus  were  diseased  and  many  were 
killed  outright." 

*Lodeman,  Bulletin  96,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 


TOBACCO    FOR    PLANT-LICE. 


stroyed,   and  such  treatments  are  by  far  the  most  valu- 
able ones. 

Tobacco. —  Several  of  the  most  common  and  often  very 
serious  organisms  may  be  overcome  by  vapors  with 
which  a  house  may  be  filled,  and  the  best  known  and 
the  most  valuable  remedy  of  this  nature  is  undoubtedly 


29.     Galls  of  a  nematode  worm  on  the  roots  of  two  tomato  plants. 
The  root  on  the  left  is  unusually  severely  affected. 

tobacco.  The  poisonous  alkaloids  found  in  the  tobacco 
plant  are  fatal  to  many  insects.  The  waste  parts  of  the 
plants,  particularly  the  "stems,"  are  utilized  by  florists 
and  others  for  purposes  of  fumigation. 

These  stems,   which  are    almost    invariably    the    dried 
mid-veins  of  the  leaves,  may  be  obtained  for  almost  noth- 


MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


ing  at  any  cigar  factory.  When  wanted  for  fumigating 
purposes  they  should  not  be  too  dry,  else  they  will  blaze, 
instead  of  slowly  smouldering  and  forming  a  dense 
smoke.  In  case  the  stems  are  too  dry,  they  may  be 
moistened  by  sprinkling  water  upon  them  ;  a  better  way, 
however,  is  to  store  the  stems  in  a  moderately  damp 
place,  and  then  they  are  always  in  good  condition  for 
burning.  If  they  blaze  while  the  house  is  being  fumi- 
gated, much  of  their  value  is  lost,  and  it  is -also  said  that 
plants  are  positively  injured  in  such  cases,  although  our 
experience  has  not  supported  this  view. 

Tobacco  stems  may  be  burned  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
Some  gardeners  merely  pile  the  required  quantity  upon 
a  brick  or  stone  floor  in  the  house  and  set  fire  to  it  by 
means  of  paper  or  shavings.  An  old  coal  scuttle  answers 
the  purpose  very  well.  Fig.  30  represents  a  home-made 
tobacco-stem  burner  which  we  have  designed,  and  which 
is  perhaps  as  simple,  serviceable,  and  easily  managed  as 
any  in  use.  The  body  of  the  burner  is  made  of  heavy, 
galvanized  sheet-iron.  It  closely  resembles  a  stove  pipe 
in  form,  but  is  about  7  inches  in  diameter  and  2  feet 
in  length.  The  bottom  is  made  of  the  same 
material,  and  is  perforated  by  about  a  dozen 
holes,  each  ^i-inch  in  diameter.  Four  legs 
support  the  burner  and  keep  the  bottom  3 
inches  from  the  floor.  A  handle  at  the  top 
completes  the  device.  When  filled,  the  stems 
being  packed  sufficiently  close  to  insure  their 
burning,  it  contains  an  amount  that  will  answer 
for  a  house  of  4,000  to  6,000  cubic  feet.  Much, 
of  course,  depends  upon  the  tightness  of  the 
house,  and  considerable  variation  will  also  be 
found  in  the  strength  of  the  stems.  Occasion-^.  A  home- 
ally  some  will  be  had  which  are  much  weaker  madea{£ni~ 
than  those  last  used,  and  hence  larger  quantities 
must  be  employed.  It  has  been  our  practice  to  test  each 
new  lot  of  stems  to  determine  their  strength  before  they 


FUMIGATING   WITH    TOBACCO.  89 

are  freely  used  in  all  the  houses.  The  quantity  must 
also  be  varied  in  accordance  with  the  plants  growing  in 
the  house.  Some  plants  are  much  more  easily  injured 
by  the  smoke  than  others,  and  the  amount  used  must 
be  insufficient  to  hurt  the  most  tender  plants.  Less  in- 
jury is  apt  to  result  if  the  houses  and  plants  are  dry ;  wet 
foliage  is  quite  easily  scorched  by  the  smoke.  Our  method 
of  starting  a  "smudge"  is  to  place  a  single  sheet  of 
newspaper,  previously  lighted,  in  the  bottom  of  the  burner, 
and  upon  this  the  stems  are  immediately  placed.  If  prop- 
erlv  dampened,  they  will  take  fire  readily  and  smoulder 
without  blazing. 

The  frequency  with  which  a  house  should  be  smoked 
cannot  be  definitely  stated.  Some  conservatories  will  re- 
quire the  operation  scarely  more  than  two  or  three  times 
during  the  winter,  while  others  may  need  that  many  treat- 
ments each  week.  In  the  latter  case,  it  is  well  to  have 
the  smudges  upon  consecutive  days,  as  in  this  manner 
insects  receive  a  second  treatment  before  they  have  re- 
covered from  the  first.  The  evening  is  perhaps  the  best 
time  for  fumigating,  as  most  of  the  disagreeable  odor  is 
thus  escaped.  But  it  may  be  advisable,  in  badly  infested 
houses,  to  follow  the  evening  treatment  by  another  the 
next  morning.  In  such  cases,  care  should  be  exercised 
that  the  houses  do  not  become  overheated  by  the  morn- 
ing sun. 

Tobacco  smoke  may  be  used  successfully  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  various  aphides  which  are  found  upon 
greenhouse  plants,  and  of  a  small  white  fly,  a  species  of 
aleyrodes.  Other  insects  cannot  be  practically  treated  by 
its  use. 

The  rose-leaf  extract  of  tobacco  we  find  to  be  one  of 
the  best  of  all  insecticides  for  glass  houses.  It  is  a 
liquid,  which  we  reduce  one-half  with  water,  then  drop 
a  large  piece  of  hot  iron  into  it.  The  fumes  are  fatal 
to  aphis,  but  have  proved  to  be  harmless  to  plants 
with  us. 


go  MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 

Bisulphide  of  carbon. — This  material  has  recently  as- 
sumed a  prominent  position  as  an  effective  insecticide.  It 
is  a  clear,  transparent  liquid,  which  evaporates  rapidly, 
even  at  a  low  temperature.  These  fumes  are  fatal  to  in- 
sect as  well  as  animal  life,  and  may  be  used  to  a  limited 
extent  in  the  greenhouse.  The  vapor  is  of  greatest  value 
in  destroying  a  small  mite  ( Tetranychus  bimaculatus) , 
that  closely  resembles  the  red  spider.  This  mite  is  not 
as  easily  overcome  by  water  as  the  red  spider  is,  and  in 
certain  cases  it  may  be  advisable  to  resort  to  the  bisul- 
phide of  carbon  treatment.  This  treatment  is  adapted  to 
plants  which  are  growing  in  pots,  or  to  low-growing 
plants  in  beds.  Whole  houses  could  scarcely  be  treated 
in  this  manner,  as  the  vapor  is  heavy,  and  an  uneven  dis- 
tribution would  probably  result.  But  for  small,  con- 
fined spaces,  as  bell-jars,  tubs,  or  barrels,  the  remedy  can 
be  used  with  success.  I  have  had  no  difficulty  in  de- 
stroying mites  and  red  spider  by  the  use  of  60  minims 
or  drops  of  the  liquid  to  a  space  containing  about  7  cubic 
feet.  The  liquid  was  poured  on  cotton  batting,  which  was 
spread  over  a  small  rose  from  a  watering  can,  the  stem 
of  the  funnel  being  set  in  the  soil.  The  plants  remained 
covered  with  enamel  cloth  nearly  two  hours,  which  suf- 
ficed to  kill  all  the  insects,  and  did  not  injure  the  violets, 
these  being  the  plants  treated. 

Hydrocyanic  gas. — The  success  which  has  followed  the 
use  of  hydrocyanic  gas  in  the  treatment  of  scale  insects 
infesting  the  orange  groves  of  California  has  suggested 
the  idea  of  its  possible  value  in  destroying  greenhouse 
pests.  The  common  method  of  making  the  gas  is  as  fol- 
lows :  One  fluidounce  of  sulphuric  acid  is  slowly  added 
to  3  ounces  of  water.  To  this  diluted  acid  there  is  then 
added  i  ounce  of  60  per  cent  cyanide  of  potassium  (very 
poisonous).  Effervescence  immediately  takes  place,  and 
the  gas  is  freely  given  off.  The  quantities  here  given  are 
sufficient  for  a  space  containing  150  cubic  feet,  the  plants 
being  exposed  to  the  gas  for  one  hour.  When  trees  are 


SULPHUR    FOR    MILDEWS.  QI 

perfectly  dormant,  such  treatment  is  not  followed  by  any 
evil  effects. 

During  the  past  spring  several  growing  plants  were 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  gas  when  used  according  to 
the  above  directions.  Tomatoes,  eggplants,  oranges,  and 
roses  were  used.  The  day  following  the  treatment  showed 
that  all  the  plants  were  injured,  but  to  what  extent  could 
not  be  well  determined.  After  two  weeks  had  passed, 
however,  the  effect  of  the  treatment  was  plainly  seen.  The 
tomato  plant  died;  the  eggplant  and  the  rose  lost  all 
their  foliage,  but  fresh  leaves  were  appearing  on  the 
stems ;  the  orange  suffered  the  least,  since  only  the 
young  leaves  were  affected.  The  mites  had  all  been 
killed,  so  that  in  this  respect  at  least  the  experiment  was 
successful. 

Other  trials  were  made  with  the  gas,  using  the  same 
kinds  of  plants,  but  it  was  found  to  be  impossible  to  de- 
stroy the  mites  without  injuring  at  least  some  of  the 
plants.  The  use  of  hydrocyanic  gas  for  the  destruction  of 
greenhouse  pests  can  therefore  scarcely  be  recommended. 
It  should  also  be  remembered  that  this  gas  is  exceed- 
ingly poisonous,  and  must  not  be  inhaled. 

Sulphur. — This  element  is  of  the  greatest  service  in 
greenhouse  work.  It  is  an  invaluable  agent  for  the  de- 
struction of  mildews,  and  is  also  of  great  assistance  in 
overcoming  red  spider.  As  commonly  used,  it  is  mixed 
with  an  equal  bulk  of  air-slaked  lime  or  some  similar 
material,  and  then  water,  oil,  milk  or  some  other  liquid 
is  added  until  a  thick,  creamy  paste  is  obtained.  This  is 
then  painted  upon  the  heating  surfaces  in  the  house,  and 
the  sulphur  fumes  are  given  off.  The  same  result  can  be 
obtained  much  more  rapidly  and  energetically  by  heating 
the  flowers  of  sulphur  until  it  melts ;  the  fumes  are  then 
given  off  in  great  abundance.  Our  practice  has  been  to 
put  the  sulphur  in  a  shallow  pan  and  then  set  it  over  an 
oil-stove,  having  the  flame  turned  just  high  enough  to 
keep  the  sulphur  in  a  melted  condition.  Almost  contin- 


MANAGEMENT    OF    THE    FORCING-HOUSE. 


uous  watching  was  necessary  to  prevent  the  material 
from  taking  fire,  for  if  this  should  occur  it  would  prove 
almost  instantly  fatal  to  all  the  plants  which  might  be 
reached  by  the  gas.  The  difficulty  was  in  a  great  measure 
overcome  by  L.  C.  Corbett,  at  that  time 
an  assistant  at  Cornell,  who  suggested  the 
use  of  a  sand-bath  as  a  means  of  modifying 
the  intensity  of  the  heat.  Our  present  out- 
fit is  shown  in  Fig.  31.  It  consists  of  two 
pans  placed  on  an  ordinary  hand  oil-stove. 
The  lower  pan  is  half  filled  with  clean, 
coarse  sand,  and  the  upper  one  contains  the 
sulphur.  By  its  proper  use  our  houses  have 
been  kept  remarkably  free  from  mildew, 
very  adverse  circumstances.  But  there  is 
constant  danger  that  the  sulphur  will  become  heated  to 
the  burning  point,  and  then  the  entire  stock  of  plants  in 
the  house  is  lost.  This  use  of  sulphur  is  often  very  con- 
venient, but  the  work  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
a  most  trustworthy  person.  If  a  house  should  be  thor- 
oughly treated  in  this  manner  every  week  or  two,  scarcely 
any  mildew  could  develop. 


even    under 


CHAPTER    IV. 


LETTUCE.* 

LETTUCE  is  the  most  popular  and  the  most  uniformly 
profitable  of  all  vegetable  crops  grown  under  glass  in  this 
country.  It  grows  rapidly,  so  that  three  crops  can  be 
taken  from  a  house  between  September  and  April,  and 
the  demand  for  a  choice  product  is  always  good.  Lettuce 
is  generally  considered  to  be  an  easy  crop  to  grow  under 
glass,  and  yet  it  is  a  fact  that  few  gardeners  are  entirely 
successful  with  the  crop,  year  by  year,  particularly  if  the 
heading  varieties  are  grown.  It  thrives  best  in  late 
winter,  but  if  careful  attention  is  given  to  watering  and 
ventilating,  it  thrives  well  in  midwinter.  Good  head  let- 
tuces should  bring  50  cents  or  60  cents  a  dozen  heads  at 
wholesale,  and  they  often  bring  more.  The  loose  types 
generally  bring  somewhat  less. 

Lettuce  varies  greatly  in  quality,  and  this  variation  is 
due  in  very  great  measure  to  the  immediate  conditions 
under  which  it  is  grown.  If  the  plant  is  very  rank,  and 
has  dark  green,  thick  leaves,  the  quality  is  low.  A  good 

*As  stated  in  the  preface,  much  of  the  discussion  upon  methods  of 
forcing  of  vegetables  which  is  presented  in  this  book  is  founded  upon 
bulletins  of  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station.  Some  of  these  bulletins  are 
now  out  of  print,  and  new  notes  and  experiences  are  constantly  ac- 
cumulating, so  that  it  seems  to  be  necessary  to  revise  the  advice  and 
to  extend  it  with  the  observations  and  experiences  of  others,  and 
thereby  to  present  a  consecutive  manual.  It  should  be  added  that 
these  same  bulletins  formed  the  basis  of  much  of  Winkler's  "  Vegeta- 
ble Forcing,"  and  this  fact  may  account  for  some  similarities  of  lan- 
guage in  the  two  books. 

(93) 


<J4  LETTUCE. 

lettuce  plant  is  yellowish  green  in  color  upon  delivery, 
and  the  leaves  are  thin  and  brittle.  The  product  should 
be  wholly  free  from  lice,  or  green-fly,  and  the  tips  of  the 
leaves  should  show  no  tendency  to  wither  or  to  turn 
brown.  If  heading  lettuce  is  grown,  the  leaves  should 
roll  inward  like  cabbage  leaves,  and  the  heads  should  be 
compact  and  nearly  globular  and  yellowish  white  towards 
the  core  (see  Fig.  34,  page  103). 

Temperature.  —  Lettuce  must  have  a  low  temperature. 
The  night  te:nperature  should  not  rise  much  above  45° , 
while  it  may  go  as  low  as  40°.  The  day  temperature,  in 
the  shade,  should  be  55°  to  65°.  Lettuce  which  is  kept 
too  warm  grows  too  tall,  and  the  leaves  are  thin  and 
flabby,  and  there  is  generally  more  danger  of  injury  from 
aphis,  rot  and  leaf-burn.  In  midwinter  particular  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  ventilation,  for  if  the  air  becomes 
damp  and  close,  mildew  or  rot  is  almost  sure  to  de- 
velop. In  raising  head  lettuce,  it  is  common  to  do  the 
watering  with  tepid  water  just  before  heading,  in  order  to 
accelerate  the  growth. 

Light. — Whilst  a  lettuce  house  must  have  an  abun- 
dance of  light,  the  plants  do  not  suffer  if  they  are  some 
distance  from  the  glass,  and  even  if  they  receive  little  di- 
rect sunlight.  The  house  should  have  an  exposure  to- 
wards the  sun,  and  the  framework  ought  to  be  as  light  as 
possible,  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained  ;  but  dif- 
fused light  is  often  as  good  as  the  direct  burning  rays  of 
the  sun.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that  good  lettuce 
may  often  be  grown  in  heavy,  rather  dark  houses,  but 
more  care  is  required  (particularly  in  watering),  the  re- 
sults are  less  certain,  and  there  is  difficulty  in  growing  the 
heading  varieties  to  perfection.  The  electric  light  may 
also  be  used  to  advantage  (see  pages  80  and  101). 

Beds  and  benches.  —  Most  of  the  commercial  lettuce 
forcers  prefer  to  grow  the  crop  in  solid  or  ground  beds, 
where  the  temperature  is  cool  and  the  conditions  of 


SOLID    BEDS    VS.    BENCHES. 


95 


moisture  are  uniform.  This  is  more  especially  true  of 
the  heading  varieties.  Our  own  experience  has  fully 
demonstrated  the  superiority  of  solid  earth  beds  over 
benches,  for  lettuce.  We  have  had  good  crops  in 
benches,  but  they  have  required  special  attention  to  heat- 
ing and  watering,  and  even  then  the  results  are  generally 


32.    A  ground  bed,  with  Grand  Rapids  lettuce. 

precarious.  If,  however,  the  benches  have  no  bottom  heat 
—  that  is,  if  there  are  no  heating  pipes  close  under  them 
and  if  the  sides  are  open  below  —  very  good  results,  par- 
ticularly with  the  loose  or  non-heading  sorts,  may  be  had 
from  year  to  year.  The  benches,  when  used,  should  con- 
tain about  six  inches  of  earth.  Fig.  32  shows  an  earth 
bed,  about  9  inches  deep,  in  which  we  have  had  ex- 
cellent success  with  lettuce. 


96  LETTUCE. 

Soils.  —  Probably  no  forced  vegetable  is  so  much  in- 
fluenced by  soil  as  the  lettuce,  and  no  doubt  more  fail- 
ures are  to  be  ascribed  to  uncongenial  soil  than  to  any 
other  single  cause.  Fortunately  this  matter  has  been 
made  the  subject  of  a  most  admirable  study  by  Gallo- 
way,* who  finds  that  the  famous  heading  lettuce  of  the 
Boston  gardeners  can  be  grown  to  perfection  only  in  soils 
which  contain  much  sand  and  very  little  clay  and  silt. 
These  soils  allow  the  water  to  settle  deeply  into  them,  and 
yet  hold  it  without  percolation  ;  the  surface  is  dry,  pre- 
venting the  occurrence  of  rot ;  the  roots  forage  far  and 
wide,  and  the  plant  food  is  quickly  available.  The  full 
characters  of  the  soil  used  by  the  Boston  growers  are  set 
forth  as  follows  by  Galloway:  "Loose  at  all  times,  re- 
gardless of  treatment,  it  being  possible  to  push  the  arm 
into  it  to  a  depth  of  20  inches  or  more.  Never  'puddles' 
when  worked,  no  matter  how  wet.  Clods  or  lumps  never 
form.  A  4-inch  dressing  of  fresh  manure,  when  spaded 
in  to  a  depth  of  15  to  20  inches,  will  be  completely  dis- 
integrated in  six  or  eight  weeks.  Sufficient  water  may  be 
added  the  first  of  September,  when  the  first  crop  is 
started,  to  carry  through  two  crops  and  a  part  of  a  third 
without  additional  applications,  except  very  light  ones 
merely  to  keep  the  leaves  moist  and  to  induce  a  move- 
ment of  the  moisture  at  the  bottom  of  the  bed  toward 
the  top,  where  it  will  come  in  contact  with  most  of  the 
roots.  The  surface  to  a  depth  of  an  inch  dries  out 
quickly,  and  this  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  preven- 
tion of  wet  rot  of  the  lower  leaves.  The  active  working 
roots  of  the  plants  are  found  in  abundance  throughout  the 
entire  depth  of  soil,  even  if  this  exceeds  30  inches." 

Galloway  was  able  to  prepare  soil  which  "gave  practi- 
cally the  same  results  "  as  that  which  he  imported  from 
Boston.  This  soil  was  made  as  follows:  "Mixture  of 

*B.  T.  Galloway,  "  The  Growth  of  Lettuce  as  Affected  by  the  Physi- 
cal Properties  of  the  Soil,"  Agric.  Science,  viii.  302  (1894). 


SOILS    FOR    LETTUCE.  97 

two  parts  of  drift  sand  and  one  part  of  greenhouse  soil. 
The  sand  was  obtained  from  the  villey  of  a  stream  near 
by,  which  frequently  overflowed  its  banks,  flooding  the 
spot  where  the  material  was  found.  The  greenhouse  soil 
was  a  mixture  consisting  of  one  part  of  the  ordinary  clay, 
gneiss  soil  of  the  region,  and  two  parts  of  well-rotted  ma- 
nure. Such  soil  will  grow  20  bushels  of  wheat  to  the 
acre  without  fertilization." 

Whilst  all  these  remarks  about  the  great  importance 
of  the  selection  of  a  proper  soil  are  certainly  true,  it 
should  nevertheless  be  said  that  a  good  gardener  can  get 
good  results  from  a  very  uncongenial  soil,  chiefly  by  giv- 
ing skillful  attention  to  watering.  It  is  always  essential  to 
the  best  lettuce  growing,  however,  to  avoid  "heavy" 
soils.  These  soils  usually  lose  their  water  quickly,  neces- 
sitating frequent  watering,  which  keeps  the  surface  wet 
and  increases  danger  from  damping-off  and  rot.  These 
soils  so->n  become  hard,  compact  and  "dead,"  and  the 
plants  grow  slowly,  with  thick,  tough  leaves. 

Green  (Bulletin  61,  Ohio  Exp.  Sta. )  gives  the  following 
advice  upon  soils  for  winter  lettuce:  "If  the  market  de- 
mands head  lettuce,  then  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  the  soil  should  have  a  considerable  per  cent  of  sand, 
and  at  the  same  time  be  sufficiently  fertile  and  have 
capacity  for  holding  moisture.  Non- heading  sorts,  like 
the  Grand  Rapids,  are  not  so  particular  as  to  soil,  but  it 
is  a  difficult  matter  to  grow  any  kind  on  a  soil  with 
much  clay  in  it,  by  surface-watering,  and  even  if  sub-irri- 
gation is  practiced  such  soil  should  be  avoided.  It  would 
be  futile  to  attempt  to  grow  lettuce  according  to  methods 
in  vogue  in  the  east  on  a  heavy  clay  soil.  Swamp  muck, 
composted  with  one-fourth  or  one-half  horse  manure, 
answers  very  well  for  either  surface  or  sub-irrigation,  par- 
ticularly for  the  latter.  It  has  the  advantage  of  being 
light  and  easily  handled,  and  never  hardens ;  moreover, 
it  has  considerable  capacity  for  water.  The  addition  of 
fine  sand  will  greatly  improve  a  clay  soil,  and  it  is  advisa- 


LETTUCE 


LETTUCE    IN    POTS.  99 

ble,  if  such  soil  is  used,  to  take  it  from  an  old  fence 
row,  using  the  sod  only.  It  may  be  inferred  from  the 
above  that  lettuce  may  be  successfully  grown  on  almost 
any  soil,  and  such  is  the  fact,  if  conditions  are  thoroughly 
studied  and  the  details  carefully  looked  after.  Neverthe- 
less, it  is  better  to  select  a  soil  naturally  adapted  to  the 
purpose  if  possible,  but  in  any  case  such  artificial  means 
as  composting  and  sub-irrigation  ought  not  to  be 
neglected." 

Growing  in  pots.— Good  lettuce  of  the  leafy  or  Grand 
Rapids  type  can  be  grown  in  pots.  It  is  a  common 
practice  with  gardeners  to  set  pots  of  lettuce  in  vacant 
places  in  cool  houses  for  the  purpose  of  utilizing  the 
room.  Growing  in  pots  is  comparatively  little  used, 
although  now  and  then  a  grower  follows  this  method  ex- 
tensively. A  most  beautiful  crop  of  pot-grown  lettuce  is 
shown  in  Fig.  33  (page  98).  The  New  York  State  Ex- 
periment Station  has  made  some  investigations  in  the  pot- 
growing  of  lettuce,  and  has  published  the  results  in  Bul- 
letin 88  (March,  1895),  from  which  I  quote  : 

"The  seed  is  sown  in  flats,  as  usual;  that  is  to  say,  in 
boxes  about  12  by  10  inches  and  3  inches  deep.  When 
the  plants  are  about  2  inches  high  they  are  transplanted 
to  2-inch  pots.  The  benches  are  filled  with  soil,  in  which 
the  pots  containing  the  lettuce  are  plunged  so  that  the 
tops  of  the  pots  are  covered  with  about  half  an  inch  of 
soil. 

"Soil  for  lettuce  should  not  be  too  heavy,  and  as  the 
soil  which  we  use  for  potting  is  a  rather  heavy  clay  loam, 
sand  is  mixed  with  it  in  preparing  it  for  the  lettuce  house. 
The  potting  soil  is  composed  of  three  parts  by  measure 
of  loam,  one  of  manure  and  one  of  sand.  The  soil  in 
the  pots  is  the  same  as  that  used  on  the  bench,  except 
that  it  is  sifted,  while  that  on  the  bench  is  not.  A  little 
drainage  material  is  put  in  the  bottom  of  each  pot.  The 
plants  are  usually  set  on  the  benches  about  10  inches 
apart  each  way.  The  roots  soon  fill  the  pot  and  grow 
8  FORC. 


TOO  LETTUCE. 

out  into  the  soil  of  the  bench  through  the  drainage  hole 
in  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  Being  thus  buried  in  the  soil, 
the  little  pots  do  not  dry  out  as  rapidly  as  they  would 
do  were  they  exposed  to  the  air. 

"The  soil  in  the  pots  is  sufficient  to  support  a  vigor- 
ous growth,  and  yet  when  the  roots  have  filled  the  pots 
the  plants  appear  to  make  a  more  compact  growth  and 
head  quicker  than  they  do  when  grown  in  beds  where 
the  extension  of  the  root  system  is  unchecked.  Another 
advantage  of  this  method  consists  in  the  fact  that  the 
plants  are  transplanted  but  once,  namely,  from  the  flats 
to  the  pots  ;  thus  the  check  to  the  growth  by  a  second 
transplanting  is  avoided. 

"The  plants  may  be  marketed  without  disturbing  their 
roots,  and  for  this  reason  they  keep  fresh  for  a  longer 
time  than  do  the  plants  whose  roots  are  disturbed  in  pre- 
paring them  for  market.  When  the  plant  is  ready  for 
market  it  may  be  knocked  out  of  the  pot  and  the  ball  of 
earth,  containing  the  roots  undisturbed,  may  be  wrapped 
snugly  in  oiled  paper.  The  earth  will* thus  keep  moist 
for  a  long  time,  and  furnish  moisture  to  the  plant  through 
the  roots  which  are  imbedded  in  it.  Local  customers 
may  be  supplied  with  lettuce  in  the  pots  and  the  pots 
returned  after  the  plants  are  taken  from  them.  Grocers 
and  other  retail  dealers  readily  appreciate  the  advantages 
of  having  lettuce  grown  in  this  way.  It  permits  them  to 
keep  the  lettuce  on  hand  for  a  considerable  length  of  time, 
and  still  present  it  to  their  customers  crisp,  fresh  and  at- 
tractive, instead  of  wilted  and  unattractive. 

"The  moment  a  pot  is  removed  from  the  bench 
another  may  immediately  be  set  in  its  place  without 
waiting  to  clear  the  bench,  or  any  portion  of  it,  of  the 
rest  of  the  lettuce.  The  method  thus  proves  economical 
both  of  time  and  space. 

"This  method  will  undoubtedly  commend  itself  to 
growers  who  are  forcing  lettuce  to  a  limited  extent. 
Whether  it  can  be  employed  to  advantage  by  those  who 


THE    SOWING    OF    LETTUCE.  IOI 

have  extensive  houses  devoted  to  lettuce  can  be  decided 
only  by  trial.  It  certainly  appears  to  be  worthy  of  ex- 
tended trial." 

Sowing  and  transplanting.  —  If  the  lettuce  crop  is  to 
be  taken  off  in  early  November,  from  seven  to  ten  weeks 
should  be  counted  from  the  sowing  of  the  seeds  to  the 
delivery  of  the  product.  A  midwinter  crop  may  require 
two  to  four  weeks  longer.  The  heading  lettuces  generally 
require  a  week  or  two  longer  than  the  loose  varieties. 
The  time  may  be  shortened  ten  days  to  two  weeks  by 
the  use  of  the  electric  arc  light  hung  directly  above  the 
house.  A  single  ordinary  street-  lamp  of  2,000  normal 
candle-power  will  be  sufficient  for  a  house  20  feet  or 
more  wide  and  75  feet  long,  if  it  is  so  hung  that  the 
house  is  uniformly  lighted  throughout.  Our  experiments 
with  the  electric  light,  now  extended  over  a  period  of  five 
years,  have  uniformly  and  unequivocally  given  these 
beneficial  results  with  lettuce  (see  page  So). 

The  first  sowing  for  house  lettuce  is  usually  made 
about  the  first  of  September,  and  the  crop  should  be  off 
in  November.  The  seeds  are  sown  in  flats  or  shallow 
boxes  ;  it  is  preferable  to  prick  off  the  young  plants  about 
4  inches  apart  into  other  flats  when  they  are  about  two 
weeks  old,  and  transplant  them  into  the  beds,  about  8  to 
10  inches  apart  each  way,  when  they  are  about  five  weeks 
from  the  seed.  Gardeners  often  omit  the  pricking  off  into 
other  flats,  simply  thinning  out  the  plants  where  they 
stand  and  transferring  them  from  the  original  flat  directly 
to  the  bed ;  but  better  and  quicker  results  are  usually 
secured  if  the  extra  handling  is  given.  Four  or  six  weeks 
after  the  first  seed  is  sown,  another  sowing  is  made  in 
flats  for  the  purpose  of  taking  the  place  of  the  first  crop. 
The  first  sowing  is  sometimes  made  in  the  open  ground 
early  in  September,  and  this  is  transplanted  directly  into 
the  beds. 

Following  are  some  actual  sample  dates  of  good  and 
bad  lettuce  growing  in  our  houses,  in  a  climate  which  is 


IO2  LETTUCE. 

unusually  cloudy  and  "slow  "in  winter:  Landreth  Forc- 
ing lettuce  sown  in  flats  February  24 ;  transplanted  to 
beds,  March  17  ;  first  heads  marketed,  under  normal  con- 
ditions, May  10  ;  first  heads  marketed  Irom  a  compartment 
receiving  electric  light  at  night  (a  total  of  84  hours),  April 
30,  or  44  days  from  seed.  Simpson  Curled  was  sown 
October  3 ;  November  7,  transplanted  to  bed.  It  was 
desired  to  hold  the  crop  back,  so  that  the  house  was 
kept  very  cold  ;  and  the  variety  is  not  well  adapted  to 
quick  forcing,  so  that  it  was  January  30  before  the  entire 
crop  was  fit  for  market,  making  119  days  from  seed. 
Grand  Rapids  lettuce  sown  December  28 ;  transplanted 
to  bed,  January  16 ;  began  marketing  March  21.  This 
makes  72  days  from  seed,  in  the  dark  months ;  and  at 
least  a  week  could  have  been  gained  if  we  had  not  been 
obliged  to  delay  transplanting  whilst  waiting  for  a  crop 
of  chrysanthemums  to  come  off  the  bed. 

A  grower's  remarks.  —  W.  W.  Rawson,  a  prominent 
grower  of  heading  lettuce  near  Boston,  is  reported*  in 
the  following  sentences  respecting  some  of  the  essential 
points  in  the  management  of  the  crop:  "With  lettuce 
planted  on  the  2oth  of  August,  the  heads  are  ready  for 
market  on  the  2oth  of  October.  Every  five  days  I  plant 
3  ounces  of  lettuce  seed,  and  this  supplies  my  green- 
houses with  plants  during  the  winter,  one  house  being 
set  out  every  week.  I  transplant  twice,  first  at  the  fourth 
week,  setting  them  4  inches  apart ;  second  at  the  sixth 
week  when  they  are  put  8  inches  apart.  They  head  dur- 
ing the  seventh  and  eighth  weeks.  During  December, 
January,  February  and  March  there  is  a  continuous  crop. 
The  last  crop  of  lettuces  from  the  greenhouse  is  in  the 
middle  of  April.  After  that  I  raise  them  in  sashes  and 
in  the  open  air.  The  house  should  be  ventilated  from 
the  ridge ;  if  this  is  not  enough,  then  from  one  side  also. 
The  temperature  should  be  warmest  when  the  crop  is 

*American  Gardening,  xvii.  197  (March  28,  1896). 


w.  w.   RAWSON'S  EXPERIENCE. 


103 


heading,  and  coolest  for  the  three  weeks  after  setting 
out  and  just  before  heading,  but  not  below  35°.  As 
soon  as  a  crop  is  harvested,  the  house  is  fumigated,  dug 
over,  and  a  new  crop  set  out.  Not  24  hours  is  lost  in 


Boston  Market  U 


changing  crops.  In  renewing  the  beds  use  light,  loamy 
soil ;  rotted  sod  is  good,  if  left  in  a  heap  for  a  year  to 
decompose  fully.  With  regard  to  mildew  of  lettuce,  if 
seen  soon  enough  it  can  be  gotten  rid  of  by  keeping  the 


104  LETTUCE. 

house  dry  and  warm  for  three  days,  but  most  people  do 
not  discover  it  soon  enough.  Fungicides  I  do  not  use, 
but  generally,  when  necessary,  smoke  the  house,  or  place 
powdered  sulphur  on  the  steam  pipes.  For  smoking,  to- 
bacco stems  are  used.  When  lettuces  grow  '  dog-eared  ' 
it  is  the  fault  of  the  grower ;  he  has  kept  the  temperature 
too  high." 

Varieties.  —  There  are  two  general  types  of  forced  let- 
tuce, the  cabbage  or  heading  type,  and  the  loose  or  leafy 
type.  The  former  is  chiefly  desired  in  the  easternmost 
markets,  but  is  little  sought  west  of  New  York  state.  It 
is  more  difficult  to  grow  than  the  loose  varieties,  being 
more  particular  as  to  soil  and  treatment,  and  requiring  a 
somewhat  longer  season.  It  is  grown  to  perfection  only 
on  loose  soils  and  in  solid  ground  beds.  The  varieties  of 
the  White-Seeded  Tennis  Ball  or  Boston  Market  type  are 
most  popular  for  heading  lettuces.  The  accompanying 
illustration  (Fig.  34,  page  103)  shows  four  heads  of  Bos- 
ton Market  lettuce  sent  me  by  W.  W.  Rawson,  Arlington, 
Mass.  The  head  on  top  weighed,  with  roots  cut  off,  7 
ozs.,  and  the  one  at  the  left  9^  ozs.  The  Grand  Rapids 
is  a  loose-leaved  lettuce,  shown  full  grown  in  Figs.  32 
and  33  (pages  95  and  98).  It  grows  rapidly,  is  of  very 
easy  cultivation,  and  is  at  the  present  time  the  most 
popular  lettuce,  except  in  those  particular  localities  where 
the  heading  varieties  are  preferred.* 

Enemies  and  diseases.  —  The  most  inveterate  pest  of 
the  lettuce  grower  is  the  green-fly  or  aphis.  If  it  once 
gets  thoroughly  established,  the  most  strenuous  efforts  are 
needed  to  dislodge  it.  The  pest  is  most  frequent  in 
houses  that  are  kept  too  warm.  The  plants  may  be 
sprinkled  with  tobacco  dust,  or  tobacco  stems  may  be 
strewn  upon  the  ground  between  the  plants  and  in  the 
walks,  and  either  treatment  may  be  expected  to  keep 

*A  test  of  the  varieties  of  lettuce  for  forcing  purposes  is  recorded 
in  Bull.  43  (1892)  of  the  Ohio  Exp.  Stau 


LETTUCE    ROT.  105 

down  the  aphis.  It  can  easily  be  kept  out  of  the  houses 
by  fumigating  twice  a  week  with  tobacco,  and  probably 
with  the  rose  leaf  extract  of  tobacco.  Do  not  wait  until 
the  insect  appears.  Begin  fumigating  as  soon  as  the  plants 
are  first  pricked  off,  and  continue  until  within  two  or 
three  weeks  of  harvest,  or  longer  if  necessary. 

The  rot  often  ruins  crops  of  lettuce.  The  outer  leaves 
decay,  often  quickly,  and  fall  flat  upon  the  ground,  leav- 
ing the  central  core  of  the  plant  standing.  Fig.  35  is  a 
fair  sample  of  a  plant  collapsed  by  rot.  I  once  lost  an 


J5      Lettuce  plant  collapsed  by  the  rot. 

entire  crop  by  this  disorder.  The  plants  were  about  two- 
thirds  grown  and  in  good  condition.  The  house  was 
rather  over- piped  for  lettuce,  and  we  kept  it  cool  by  care- 
ful attention  to  ventilation.  It  became  necessary  to  be 
absent  three  days  in  midwinter.  Careful  instructions 
were  given  a  workman  concerning  the  management  of 
the  house,  but  he  kept  it  too  close  and  too  wet,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  three  days  the  crop  was  past  recovery. 

This  lettuce  rot  is  due  to  a  fungus  (Botrytis  vulgaris) 
which  lives  upon  decaying  matter  on  the  soil,  but  when 
the  house  is  kept  too  warm  and  damp,  and  the  lettuce 
becomes  flabby,  it  invades  the  plant  and  causes  irrepara- 
ble ruin.  There  is  no  remedy,  but  if  the  soil  is  sandy 
and  "sweet"  and  the  house  properly  managed  as  to 
moisture  and  temperature,  and  top  dressings  of  manure 


106  LETTUCE. 

are  avoided,  the  disease  need  not  be  feared.  Particular 
care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  having  any  water  on  the 
leaves  at  night,  particularly  in  dull,  cold  weather.  When 
an  attack  becomes  apparent,  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to 
raise  the  temperature,  give  plenty  of  air  (but  avoid 
draughts),  and  dry  the  house  off.  Galloway  speaks  of  the 
rot  as  follows,  in  the  article  already  quoted:  "Wet  rot 
of  the  lower  leaves,  and  rotting  of  the  stems  and  conse- 
quent wilting  of  the  plant,  are  seldom  troublesome  in  this 
[Boston  or  sandy]  soil  if  properly  handled,  because  the 
surface  is  at  all  times  comparatively  dry.  Wet  rot  is 
produced  by  a  fungus  which  may  be  found  at  any  time 
on  pieces  of  sticks  and  straws  scattered  through  the  soil. 
The  fungus  does  not  have  the  power  of  breaking  down 
the  uninjured  tissues  of  the  plant,  excepting  possibly  in 
very  rare  cases.  When  the  tissues  become  water-soaked, 
however,  as  they  do  when  in  contact  with  wet  soil,  the 
fungus,  which  is  also  most  active  in  the  presence  of 
moisture,  readily  gains  entrance  and  soon  develops  suf- 
ficient energy  to  become  an  active  parasite." 

The  mildew  (Peronospora  gangliformis}  is  the  staple 
lettuce  disease  of  the  books,  but  it  is  much  less  frequent 
than  the  rot.  It  is  induced  by  sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature, soft,  flabby  plants,  and  too  much  water  at  night. 
Fumes  of  sulphur  may  be  expected  to  keep  it  in  check 
when  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  house  are  set  at 
rights.  No  doubt  much  of  the  trouble  ascribed  to  mil- 
dew is  really  the  rot. 

Leaf-burn  is  a  dying  of  the  tips  of  the  leaves  when  the 
plant  is  nearly  or  quite  mature.  It  is  particularly  trouble- 
some on  the  heading  varieties,  in  which  the  slightest 
blemish  upon  the  leaves  detracts  greatly  from  the  sell- 
ing qualities  of  the  lettuce.  This  difficulty,  according  to 
Galloway,  is  attributable  largely  to  the  soil:  "Top-burn, 
one  of  the  worst  troubles  of  the  lettuce  grower,  does  com- 
paratively little  injury  on  this  Boston  soil,  providing  the 
proper  attention  is  given  to  ventilation  and  the  manage- 


LEAF-BURN   OF    LETTUCE.  107 

ment  of  the  water  and  heat.  Burn  is  the  direct  result  of 
the  collapse  and  death  of  the  cells  composing  the  edges 
of  the  leaves.  It  is  most  likely  to  occur  just  as  the  plant 
begins  to  head,  and  may  be  induced  by  a  number  of 
causes.  The  trouble  is  most  likely  to  result  on  a  bright 
day  following  several  days  of  cloudy,  wet  weather.  Dur- 
ing cloudy  weather  in  winter  the  air  in  a  greenhouse  is 
practically  saturated,  and  in  consequence  there  is  com- 
paratively little  transpiration  on  the  part  of  the  leaves. 
The  cells,  therefore,  become  excessively  turgid,  and  are 
probably  weakened  by  the  presence  of  organic  acids. 
When  the  sun  suddenly  appears,  as  it  often  does  after 
a  cloudy  spell  in  winter,  there  is  an  immediate,  rapid  rise 
in  temperature  and  a  diminution  of  the  amount  of  moist- 
ure in  the  air  in  the  greenhouse.  Under  these  conditions 
the  plant  rapidly  gives  off  water,  and  if  the  loss  is  greater 
than  the  roots  can  supply  the  tissues  first  wilt,  then  col- 
lapse and  die.  The  ability  of  the  roots  to  supply  the 
moisture  is  affected  by  the  temperature  of  the  soil,  the 
movement  of  water  in  the  latter,  and  the  presence  or 
absence  of  salts  in  solution.  In  this  soil  the  temperature 
rises  rapidly  as  soon  as  the  air  in  the  greenhouse  becomes 
warm,  and  the  roots  in  consequence  immediately  begin 
the  work  of  supplying  the  leaves  with  water.  The  move- 
ment of  the  water  in  the  soil  is  also  rapid,  so  that  the 
plant  is  able  to  utilize  it  rapidly." 


CHAPTER   V. 


CAULIFLOWER. 

THERE  is  probably  no  vegetable  which  is  capable  of 
profitable  forcing  in  America  concerning  which  so  little 
has  been  written  in  reference  to  its  treatment  under  glass 
as  cauliflower.  It  is  true  that  the  literature  of  vegetable 
forcing  is  very  meagre  in  this  country,  and  it  is,  therefore, 
little  wonder  that  the  cauliflower,  which  is  scarcely  known 
as  a  winter  crop  outside  the  establishments  of  wealthy 
persons  who  employ  gardeners,  should  have  received  so 
little  attention  from  writers.  It  should  be  said  that  in 
speaking  of  the  forcing  of  cauliflowers,  reference  is  made 
to  the  practice  of  growing  them  under  glass  to  maturity 
in  the  cold  months,  and  not  to  the  much  commoner  prac- 
tice of  growing  them  to  a  large  size  under  frames  or  sash- 
covered  houses  and  stripping  the  sash  off  upon  the  ap- 
proach of  warm  weather  and  allowing  them  to  mature 
without  cover.  The  management  of  cauliflowers  under 
glass  is  a  simple  matter,  particularly  in  houses  which  are 
adapted  to  lettuce,  so  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  make  any 
extended  account  of  the  operation.  A  sketch  of  some  of 
the  experiments  made  at  Cornell  will  sufficiently  indicate 
the  methods  to  be  employed. 

Unsuccessful  experiments.  —  In  our  first  crop, "  the 
seeds  were  sown  in  "flats"  or  shallow  boxes,  and  the 
young  plants  were  transplanted  into  pots.  When  the 
plants  were  8  or  10  inches  high  they  had  been  shifted 
to  8-inch  pots,  and  knowing  that  cauliflowers  delight 
in  a  low  temperature,  the  pots  were  set  upon  the  ground 
(108) 


EXPERIENCE   WITH    CAULIFLOWER.  IOQ 

in  a  cool  lean-to  house,  where  the  temperature  often  went 
below  40°.  The  floor  of  this  house  was  cold  and  wet, 
and  it  was  soon  evident  that  the  plants  were  suffering. 
They  were  removed,  therefore,  into  an  intermediate  tem- 
perature. Growth  soon  began  again,  and  small  heads 
began  to  form  before  the  plants  had  reached  the  proper 
size.  These  heads,  however,  soon  split  or  "buttoned," 
and  none  of  them  were  merchantable.  The  lesson  was 
evident.  The  plants  had  been  checked,  and  under  the 
sudden  stimulus  of  a  new  growth  the  premature  heads 
were  ruptured.  The  experiment  was  repeated  the  follow- 
ing winter  in  a  small  way,  the  attempt  being  made  to 
keep  the  plants  in  a  uniform  condition  of  vigor  and 
growth  throughout  their  life  time.  This  attempt  was 
successful,  and  it  led  to  two  larger  experiments.  In  this 
second  trial,  the  plants  were  grown  in  6-inch  pots,  but 
this  was  thereafter  abandoned  as  too  expensive  and 
troublesome. 

The  successful  crops.  —  The  house  in  which  the  two 
first  successful  crops  were  grown  is  a  low  two-thirds  span, 
facing  the  south,  60  ft.  long  by  20  ft.  wide.  It  is  built 
upon  a  side  hill,  and  it  has  three  benches,  the  two  lower 
ones  being  used  for  the  cauliflowers.  The  lowest  bench, 
against  the  south  wall,  has  a  board  bottom  underneath  7 
or  8  inches  of  soil,  and  is  supplied  with  mild  bottom  heat 
from  two  i^-inch  steam  pipes.  The  main  or  central  benrh, 
7  feet  wide,  is  solid  :  that  is,  it  is  a  ground  bed,  and  has  no 
bottom  heat.  The  soil  in  this  bed  is  about  8  inches  deep, 
and  it  rests  upon  a  natural  subsoil  of  very  hard  clay. 
The  soil  in  both  beds  was  placed  upon  them  in  the  pre- 
ceding fall,  and  it  was  made  of  good  garden  loam  with 
which  a  very  liberal  supply  of  old  manure  was  mixed. 
One  load  of  manure  mixed  with  three  or  four  of  the 
earth  makes  a  good  soil ;  and  if  it  is  somewhat  heavy 
or  pasty,  sand  must  be  supplied  to  it  to  afford  perfect 
drainage  and  prevent  it  from  getting  "sour"  or  hard. 
The  lower  bed,  which  had  bottom  heat,  did  so  poorly 


CAULIFLOWER. 


TREATMENT   OF   CAULIFLOWER.  Ill 

under  both  crops  that  I  shall  dismiss  it  at  once  from  this 
account.  The  plants  were  later  than  those  in  the  solid 
bed,  and  never  equaled  them  in  size  and  percentage  of 
good  heads  ;  and  they  were  conspicuously  lacking  in  uni- 
formity. So  few  good  heads  formed  that  the  bed  did 
not  return  the  labor  expended  upon  it. 

Seeds  for  the  first  crop  were  sown  in  boxes  on  August 
24.  The  plants,  having  been  once  transplanted,  were  set 
in  the  beds  October  4  and  5,  about  16  inches  apart  each 
way.  Three  varieties  were  used,  —  Extra  Early  Dwarf 
Erfurt,  Gilt-Edge  Snowball  and  Early  Snowball. 

The  plants  were  watered  two  or  three  times  a  week, 
as  occasion  demanded,  and  the  ground  was  frequently 
stirred  with  a  hand  weeder.  An  abundance  of  air  was 
given  during  the  day,  a  row  of  small  ventilators  along  the 
peak  of  the  house  being  thrown  open  even  in  sharp 
weather  if  the  sun  was  bright  and  there  was  little  air  stir- 
ring. From  60°  to  70°  during  the  day  and  about  50°  at 
night  were  considered  to  be  the  ideal  temperatures, 
although  in  very  bright  days  the  mercury  might  register 
80°  for  a  time  and  the  night  temperature  several  times 
sank  below  40°.  There  was  a  tendency  for  the  plants  to 
damp  off  soon  after  they  were  set,  but  care  in  not  water- 
ing too  much  (particularly  close  about  the  plant)  and  in  giv- 
ing an  abundance  of  fresh  air  seemed  to  keep  the  trouble 
in  check ;  and  new  plants  were  set  into  the  vacancies. 
We  were  obliged  to  contend  with  two  other  enemies,  the 
green-fly  or  aphis,  and  the  common  green  cabbage 
worm.  The  aphis  is  readily  kept  in  check  by  tobacco 
smudge.  The  first  cabbage  worms  were  noticed  Novem- 
ber 21,  and  for  a  couple  of  weeks  they  had  to  be  care- 
fully picked.  The  boxes  of  young  plants  had  stood  out 
of  doors  during  September,  and  it  is  probable  that  eggs 
were  laid  upon  the  plants  at  that  time. 

The  first  week  in  December,  heads  were  beginning  to 
form.  The  first  heads  were  sold  January  13,  four  and  a- 
half  months  from  the  sowing  of  the  seed.  The  Erfurt 


112  CAULIFLOWER. 

gave  the  earliest  and  evidently  the  best  results.  The 
plants  had  been  somewhat  checked  late  in  their  history 
by  very  dark  weather  and  possibly  by  some  inattention 
in  management,  and  many  of  the  heads  began  to  "but- 
ton," or  to  break  into  irregular  portions,  with  a  tendency 
to  go  to  seed.  The  house  was  needed  for  other  experi- 
ments, and  on  January  20  the  plants  were  all  removed. 
At  this  time  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  crop  had  matured 
sufficiently  to  give  marketable  heads,  although  many  of 
the  heads  were  small.  Winter  cauliflowers,  in  common 
with  all  forced  crops,  should  be  harvested  when  small, 
for  products  of  medium  or  even  small  size  sell  for  nearly 
or  quite  as  much  as  large  ones  in  winter,  and  the  cost  of 
raising  them  is  much  less.  A  head  4  inches  across  is 
large  enough  for  January  sales,  and  many  of  the  heads 
which  we  sold  were  considerably  smaller  than  this.  These 
heads  sold  readily  at  our  door  for  20  cents  apiece. 

January  25,  a  second  crop  of  cauliflowers  was  set  in 
the  beds,  comprising  Early  Snowball  and  Dwarf  Erfurt. 
Seeds  for  this  crop  were  sown  in  flats  October  21.  On 
November  5  the  plants  were  transplanted  to  other  flats, 
and  on  December  16  shifted  to  3-inch  pots,  where  they 
remained  until  set  in  the  bed.  On  April  8,  the  plants 
had  reached  the  size  shown  in  the  photograph  in  Fig.  36 
(page  no).  At  this  time  they  completely  covered  the 
ground,  and  choked  out  lettuce  which  had  been  placed 
between  them.  About  the  2oth  of  March,  heads  were 
found  to  be  forming  in  the  Early  Snowball.  In  the 
former  experiment,  Erfurt  gave  the  first  heads.  A  week 
later  than  this,  Snowball  had  heads  3  to  4  inches  in 
diameter,  while  Erfurt  showed  none.  The  first  heads 
were  sold  on  the  2gth  of  March,  about  five  and  one-third 
months  from  the  time  of  sowing.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  time  between  sowing  and  harvest  is  greater  in 
the  second  crop  than  in  the  first.  This  is  because  the 
plants  were  wholly  grown  in  the  dark  and  short  days 
of  midwinter.  It  should  be  added,  also,  that  the  climate 


TREATMENT   OF   CAULIFLOWER.  113 

of    Ithaca  is    excessively    cloudy,    and    that    the    forcing 
of  plants    presents  special  difficulties  here. 

An  attempt  was  now  made  to  keep  the  plants  in  a 
uniform  but  not  exuberant  state  of  vigor  to  prevent  the 
heads  from  buttoning.  The  crop  held  up  well,  and  on 
the  ist  of  May,  when  the  experiment  closed,  there  were 
many  merchantable  heads  unsold.  Ninety  per  cent  of  the 
plants  made  good  heads,  which  is  a  very  large  propor- 


3T.    A  head  of  winter  ca 


tion,  even  for  the  best  field  culture.  In  this  crop,  the 
heads  were  allowed  to  attain  a  larger  size  than  in  the 
midwinter  crop,  the  average  diameter  being  about  6 
inches.  A  good  head  of  Snowball  is  shown  in  Fig.  37. 
It  is  rarely  necessary  to  bleach  the  heads,  as  is  done 
in  field  culture.  Late  in  the  season,  in  April,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  break  a  leaf  down  over  a  head  now  and 
then  to  protect  it  from  too  hot  sun,  but  ordinarily  the 
heads  will  be  perfectly  white  under  glass,  when  full 


114  CAULIFLOWER. 

grown.  The  heads  are  as  sweet  and  tender  as  the  best 
field  product,  and  we  have  rarely  grown  a  crop  under 
glass,  either  of  vegetables  or  flowers,  which  was  so  satis- 
factory and  which  attracted  so  much  attention  as  these 
crops  of  cauliflowers.  As  to  varieties,  there  is  evidently 
little  choice  between  the  Erfurt  and  Snowball  strains.  In 
the  last  and  most  successful  crop,  the  Early  Snowball 
was  the  earlier,  but  otherwise  it  had  little  if  any  superi- 
ority over  the  other. 

Subsequent  experience  has  confirmed  the  methods 
detailed  above,  and  has  convinced  us  that  cauliflower  is 
one  of  the  most  satisfactory  plants  for  forcing,  so  far  as 
the  growing  of  them  is  concerned.  It  is  a  question 
whether  they  would  bring  sufficient  price  in  the  market 
to  warrant  the  raising  of  them  in  winter.  The  grower 
would  certainly  need  to  have  a  special  market,  for  it  is 
not  a  staple  commodity.  Field-grown  cauliflowers  are 
now  kept  in  cold  storage,  which  would  still  further  re- 
duce the  demand  for  forced  heads.  It  should  be  said, 
in  closing,  that  cauliflower  seed  is  very  expensive,  and 
that  only  the  very  best  seed  can  be  relied  upon  for  good 
results. 


CHAPTER    VI. 


RADISH. 

CORNELL   EXPERIENCE.* 

THE  radish  is  generally  considered  to  be  a  vegetable 
which  may  be  forced  without  any  special  difficulty.  The 
prevalence  of  this  opinion  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  plants  are  grown  out  of  doors  without  any  trouble, 
and  also  to  the  still  common  practice  of  growing  them  in 
hotbeds.  Under  these  various  conditions,  nearly  all  va- 
rieties of  radishes  thrive  ;  but,  nevertheless,  it  is  a  fact 
that  the  radish  is  one  of  the  most  sensitive  of  all  the 
vegetables  forced  for  market.  It  is  impatient  in  a  high 
temperature,  slow  and  unsatisfactory  in  a  cold  one ;  it 
imperatively  demands  light,  and  the  least  shade  causes 
the  stem  to  elongate  so  that  the  foliage  may  be  as  .near 
as  possible  to  the  sunshine  ;  it  becomes  tough  and  un- 
palatable in  poor  soil,  while  in  rich  earth,  with  plenty  of 
moisture,  it  yields  readily  to  the  attacks  of  the  various 
damping-off  fungi ;  and  it  must  be  grown  quickly 
("forced")  in  order  to  make  the  flesh  crisp  and  of  a 
delicate  flavor.  Conditions  which  will  meet  these  re- 
quirements are  not  found  in  all  forcing  establishments. 
Radishes  often  thrive  between  cucumbers,  when  these 
plants  are  grown  as  a  late  winter  crop,  following  lettuce. 

Sowing. —  Radishes  are  always  propagated  from  seeds. 

*By  E.  G.  Lodeman.  More  detailed  results  may  be  expected,  in 
bulletin  form,  when  the  experiments  which  are  now  in  progress 
mature. 

9   FORC.  (115) 


Il6  RADISH. 

These  are  fairly  large,  and  as  a  rule  they  possess  strong 
powers  of  germination.  The  starting  of  the  plants  is, 
therefore,  an  easy  matter;  the  seeds  may  be  sown  in 
drills  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  an  inch  deep,  the 
greater  depth  being  preferred  for  light,  sandy  soils.  They 
are  generally  sown  thickly,  and  the  seedlings  are  after- 
wards thinned  to  the  desired  distance  ;  but  if  the  seeds  are 
fresh  they  may  be  planted  at  intervals  of  about  one-fourth 
inch  in  the  drills.  This  should  insure  a  good  stand.  A 
convenient  method  of  making  the  drills  in  hotbeds  and 
benches  is  to  fasten  to  one  side  of  a  lath  a  strip  that  is 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick  and  as  wide  as  the  drill 
is  to  be  deep.  This  is  nailed  edgewise  along  the  center 
of  the  lath  (Fig.  38),  and 
the  drills  are  made  by  press- 
ing the  projecting  piece  into 
the  soil  until  the  lath  will 
allow  it  to  go  no  further. 
38.  Planting  stick.  It  is  then  carefully  with- 

drawn,  and    if   the    soil    is 

properly  prepared  and  not  too  dry,  a  perfect  groove 
will  be  formed.  A  very  uniform  depth  can  be  attained 
in  this  manner. 

Soil. —  The  soil  for  radishes  should  be  what  is  known 
as  warm  and  quick.  Sand  should  predominate,  but 
plenty  of  humus  and  well  rotted-stable  manure  must  be 
mixed  with  it.  By  composting  thinly-cut  sod  growing 
upon  sandy  loam  with  one-third  its  volume  of  stable  ma- 
nure, a  good  radish  soil  will  be  formed.  It  will  be  ready 
for  use  in  about  a  year,  and  if  at  the  end  of  that  time 
the  vegetable  fiber  is  not  thoroughly  decayed,  it  will  not 
maiter.  Such  a  compost  is  suitable  for  nearly  all  vege- 
tables grown  in  greenhouses,  but  it  is  especially  valuable 
for  rapid-growing  crops.  When  placed  upon  a  layer  of 
ashes,  coarse  gravel,  inverted  sods,  or  some  similar  open 
material,  the  drainage  is  perfect,  and  the  plants  have  an 
excellent  opportunity  for  rapid  growth. 


SOWING   THE    SEED.  117 

The  amount  of  soil  required  by  radishes  varies  with 
the  varieties  grown.  The  small,  spherical-shaped  sorts  do 
well  in  a  depth  of  only  3  or  4  inches,  while  the  long-rooted 
varieties  require  almost  twice  as  much.  After  the  soil 
has  been  placed  in  the  benches  it  should  be  made  moder- 
ately firm  by  packing  it  with  some  heavy  object ;  a  brick 


of  winter  radishes. 


answers  the  purpose  well.  If  it  is  inclined  to  be  dry,  it 
should  be  moistened,  for  when  in  proper  condition  for 
seed  sowing  it  may  be  worked  to  the  best  advantage. 

General  management.— The  drills  may  be  made  3  or  4 
inches  apart  for  the  smaller  and  more  rapidly  maturing 
varieties  ;  for  the  others,  5  or  6  inches  between  the  rows 
will  be  sufficient. 


Il8  RADISH. 

After  the  seed  has  been  sown  and  the  earth  above 
has  been  well  firmed,  no  watering  will  be  necessary  until 
the  seedlings  appear,  unless  the  soil  was  too  dry  to  begin 
with.  In  that  case,  water  as  freely  as  necessary  ;  there  is 
little  danger  of  applying  too  much.  The  seedlings  should 
appear  in  four  or  five  days,  and  a  week  or  ten  days  later 
they  may  be  thinned.  The  small  kinds  will  do  well  if  two 
or  three  are  left  to  the  inch  ;  the  large  ones  require  more 
room,  and  one  plant  to  about  an  inch  of  space  will  be 
found  none  too  thin.  When  this  work  has  been  done, 
nearly  all  the  further  attention  necessary  will  be  to  main- 
tain a  proper  temperature  and  to  apply  water  when  it  is 
needed.  Weeding,  and  an  occasional  cultivation  with  a 
hand  weeder,  should  not  be  neglected. 

As  has  already  been  said,  the  successful  forcing  of 
radishes  is  not  such  an  easy  matter  as  it  would  at  first 
appear.  The  more  important  of  the  difficulties  will  now 
be  considered  in  detail. 

The  conditions  found  in  a  hotbed  which  is  almost 
spent  are  very  nearly  ideal  for  forcing  radishes.  In  the 
first  place,  the  temperatures  of  the  soil  and  the  air  under 
the  glass  are  as  nearly  right  as  they  can  well  be  made. 
As  a  rule,  the  radish  is  believed  to  do  best  in  a  cool 
house,  one  having  a  temperature  of  4o°-6o°.*  The  soil 
in  such  a  house  should  not  be  much  warmer.  But  in  a 
hotbed  it  is  warmer,  and  frequently  very  much  warmer. 
This  explains  the  rapid  and  luxuriant  growth  which  may 
be  produced  apparently  without  effort  on  the  part  of  the 

*  "  It  adapts  itself  to  hotbeds  and  forcing-houses  quite  well,  but  it 
objects  to  an  overheated  forcing-house  as  much  as  to  an  excessively 
exposed  coldframe.  It  grows  too  many  leaves  and  becomes  pithy  in 
one  situation,  and  in  the  other  case  its  growth  is  stunted  or 
wholly  checked,  and  under  severe  freezing  it  dies.  Its  proper  tem- 
perature is  from  40°  to  65°,  with  plenty  of  fresh  air.  In  rich  soil,  with 
sufficient  water,  it  is  a  quick  cropper,  sometimes  being  ready  for 
market  in  21  days  from  the  seed."  *  *  *  "  The  wholesale  market 
price  of  radishes  at  Philadelphia  in  winter  may  be  quoted  at  $2  to  $4 
per  100  bunches."— Dreer's  Vegetables  Under  Glass,"  57,  59. 


TEMPERATURE   AND    LIGHT.  Iig 

grower.  Repeated  trials  in  growing  radishes  in  large 
houses  having  different  temperatures  have  shown  plainly 
that  during  the  first  two  or  three  weeks,  at  least,  radishes 
will  bear  well  a  soil  temperature  of  fully  65°  F.,  and  70° 
has  not  proved  too  much  in  several  instances.  If  suffi- 
cient moisture  is  present  the  plants  must  grow,  and  they 
must  mature  quickly. 

But  although  a  high  soil  temperature  is  desirable,  it 
does  not  follow  that  the  atmosphere  should  be  equally 
warm.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  temperature  of  the  house 
can  be  kept  about  10  degrees  below  that  of  the  soil,  the 
tendency  to  leaf  formation  will  probably  be  checked.  The 
hotbed  may  again  serve  as  a  guide.  Here  the  heat  is  in 
the  soil,  bottom  heat,  as  it  is  called,  and  the  large  amount 
of  glass,  as  compared  with  the  amount  of  air-space,  must 
have  a  strong  tendency  to  lower  the  temperature  about 
the  foliage ;  that  surrounding  the  roots  is  much  less  af- 
fected. 

Another  important  point, —  one  which  has  not  been 
duly  emphasized  in  connection  with  this  crop, —  is  the 
amount  of  light  received  by  the  plants'.  Few  plants  show 
the  want  of  light  more  quickly  than  radishes.  If  the 
shadow  of  a  steam  pipe  or  of  a  board  falls  upon  the 
bench,  the  plants  soon  become  drawn  ;  the  shadow  cast 
by  tall-growing  varieties  causes  the  shorter  ones  to  grow 
more  upright ;  a  roof  having  small  panes  of  glass  and  a 
comparatively  large  amount  of  wood-work  has  a  strong 
tendency  to  prevent  the  plants  from  forming  bottoms,  un- 
less the  glass  is  close  to  the  foliage ;  and  if  no  direct  sun- 
light is  allowed  to  reach  the  plants,  no  swelling  of  the 
stem  may  take  place,  but  the  plants  will  grow  very  slen- 
der, and  finally  die,  as  if  attacked  by  some  unknown 
malady.  If  radish  seed  is  sown  very  thickly,  a  similar  re- 
sult may  occur  even  in  places  which  are  fairly  well 
lighted.  The  strong  growth  of  foliage  excludes  practi- 
cally all  the  light  from  the  soil,  and  the  plants  will  form  no 
bottoms. 


The  above  remarks  seem  to  show  the  necessity  of  thin- 
ning plants  properly  if  the  finest  and  most  tender  radishes 
are  wanted  Thinning  allows  light  and  air  to  enter  freely 
to  all  portions  of  the  plants  above  ground,  and  the  condi- 
tions are  consequently  favorable  to  rapid  growth. 

A  moderately  moist  atmosphere  appears  to  be  favor- 
able to  the  strong  and  quick  development  of  radishes. 
When  this  crop  is  forced  in  hotbeds,  the  sash  are  neces- 
sarily lowered  at  times,  and  a  confined  air  surrounds  the 
plants,  frequently  for  considerable  periods.  They  appear 
to  thrive  under  such  treatment,  and  it  is  desirable  to  pro- 
duce the  same  condition  when  growing  the  plants  in 
greenhouses. 

It  is  rare  that  the  soil  in  a  hotbed  is  more  than  12  or 
15  inches  from  the  glass.  This  allows  an  abundance  of 
light  to  reach  the  plants.  The  benches  in  a  forcing-house 
cannot  be  so  favorably  placed  in  all  their  parts,  and  the 
best  way  of  correcting  the  fault  is  to  use  large  glass  and 
a  light  framework  in  the  roof.  Under  such  conditions 
the  plants  will  frequently  do  fairly  well  8  or  10  feet  from 
the  glass.  But  with  a  light  roof,  the  panes  being  at  least 
12  x  14  inches,  the  conditions  approach  more  nearly  those 
existing  out  of  doors,  and  this  explains  the  fact  that  the 
plants  do  not  become  drawn  or  "leggy." 

Varieties. —  There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  rad- 
ishes ;  they  differ  mostly  in  form,  color,  and  time  of  ma- 
turity. Those  which  mature  rapidly  are  the  ones  most 
commonly  forced,  and  a  greater  number  of  crops  may  be 
removed  in  a  given  time.  Several  mature,  under  favor- 
able conditions,  about  three  weeks  from  the  time  of  seed 
sowing.  These  are  nearly  all  red  in  color,  and  mostly  of 
a  spherical  or  olive  form.  The  following  may  be  recom- 
mended :  Ne  Plus  Ultra,  New  Rapid  Forcing,  Extra 
Early  Carmine  Olive-shaped,  Earliest  Carmine  Turnip, 
Early  Scarlet  Globe,  Twenty-day  Forcing,  Earliest  White, 
New  White  Forcing. 

Among  the  best  of  those  which  mature  about  a  week 


GALLOWAY  S    EXPERIENCE.  121 

later  than  the  above,  may  be  named  New  Crystal  Forc- 
ing (white),  New  White  Lady-Finger,  Succession,  French 
Breakfast,  Long  Scarlet  Short-top,  Long  Cardinal.  As 
already  stated,  the  long  radishes  are  not  so  satisfactory 
for  forcing  as  the  smaller  varieties  are.  It  must  also  be 
borne  in  mind  that  varieties  of  radishes,  as  of  most  other 
vegetables,  are  constantly. changing,  so  that  the  varieties 
which  are  recommended  to-day  may  not  be  recommended 
a  year  from  now. 

WASHINGTON   EXPERIENCE.* 

In  the  vicinity  of  many  of  our  large  cities  the  grow- 
ing of  radishes  in  greenhouses  may,  if  properly  done, 
prove  a  profitable  industry.  The  following  notes  on  the 
subject  are  based  upon  work  carried  on  during  the  past 
four  or  five  years,  supplemented  by  observations  extend- 
ing over  a  longer  period  : 

Houses  adapted  to  growing  radishes.— Radishes  may 
be  grown  in  almost  any  kind  of  a  greenhouse,  and  for 
this  reason  the  crop  is  a  valuable  one  to  work  in  with 
others,  such  as  lettuce,  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  etc.  We  do 
not  advocate,  however,  the  practice  of  growing  radishes 
in  a  house  with  other  crops,  unless  it  is  in  certain  special 
cases,  where  there  is  ground  to  spare  and  requirements 
for  each  crop  are  approximately  the  same.  As  is  the 
case  with  all  plants  under  glass,  better  results  will  follow 
if  an  entire  house  is  devoted  to  one  crop,  thus  making  it 
possible  to  furnish,  without  fear  of  injury  to  other  crops, 
the  necessary  requirements  for  growth. 

Three-quarter  span  houses,  18  feet  wide,  with  two 
walks  and  three  beds,  will  be  found  as  convenient  as  any 
for  the  crop.  Three-quarter  span  houses  with  one  path 
will  also  be  found  useful.  Such  a  house,  with  young  rad- 
ishes just  coming  through  the  ground,  is  shown  at  Fig.  40. 

*By  B.  T.  Galloway,  in  American  Gardening,  xvii.  609,  610  (Sept. 
26,  1896). 


The  walks  should  be  from  14  to  18  inches  wide,  de- 
pending on  the  depth,  and  should  have  their  sides  made 
of  2-inch  hemlock  or  cypress  boards,  fastened  to  sawed 
cedar  or  other  durable  posts.  Good  crops  may  be  grown 
in  even-span  houses,  and  even  a  lean-to  may  be  used,  if 
proper  facilities  for  heating  and  ventilating  are  present. 

The  soil. —  In  order  to  obtain  solid,  crisp  radishes,  the 
soil  must  not  contain  too  much  manure,  nor  should  sand 
predominate.  Ordinary  garden  loam,  containing  about  7 
per  cent  clay,  makes  the  best  soil.  To  this  should  be 
added  well-rotted  manure  in  the  proportion  of  one  part 
manure  to  three  or  four  parts  soil. 

We  prefer  solid  beds  to  benches,  as  the  conditions  are 
more  uniform  in  the  former  and  the  expense  of  maintain- 
ing them  is  less.  The  beds  should  be  from  6  to  8  inches 
deep,  but  good  crops  may  be  grown  on  4  inches  of  pre- 
pared soil.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  necessary  to  add  a 
little  manure  after  each  crop,  while  if  deeper  beds  are 
used  the  same  soil  will  answer  for  the  entire  season's 
work.  If  the  radishes  are  followed  by  cucumbers,  the 
manure  necessary  for  the  latter  will  serve  for  next  sea- 
son's radishes,  but  it  will  be  necessary  in  such  cases  to 
remove  about  2  inches  of  this  extra  manured  soil  and  re- 
place it  with  loam  from  the  outside.  The  new  loam 
should  then  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil  already  in 
the  house,  and  when  this  is  accomplished  the  seed  may 
be  planted. 

Planting  the  seed.— Radishes  which  come  into  the 
market  before  Thanksgiving  are  seldom  profitable,  and 
for  this  reason  it  is  best  to  postpone  the  first  seed-sowing 
until  about  the  middle  of  October.  Previous  to  this  time 
the  house  may  be  used  for  growing  stock  plants  of  let- 
tuce. By  this  we  mean  that  lettuce  sowed  in  the  house, 
September  i,  and  transplanted  4  by  4  inches  September 
15,  will  be  large  enough  by  the  first  week  in  October  to 
transplant  to  other  houses,  where  it  is  to  head. 

Previous  to  sowing  the  radish  seed,  the  ground  should 


LARGE  VS.  SMALL  SEED. 


123 


be  made  smooth  and  as  free  from  lumps  as  possible.  By 
means  of  a  light  pine  board  4  inches  wide,  rows  4  inches 
apart  are  marked  off.  The  edge  of  a  common  lath  is 
then  placed  in  the  marks  and  gently  pressed  into  the  soil 
until  a  narrow  furrow  one  inch  deep  is  made.  The  seed 
is  then  dropped  in  the  furrow  about  half  an  inch  apart, 
covered,  and  pressed  down  with  the  hand.  Working  in 


A  three-quarter  span  radish  house. 


this  way,  two  men  can  plant  almost  150  square  feet  an 
hour,  and  will  use  about  3  ounces  of  seed.  As  soon  as 
the  radishes  are  up  and  the  seed  leaves  are  well  formed, 
the  plants  should  be  thinned  out  to  i^  to  2  inches  apart. 
It  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  have  all  the  radishes 
attain  marketable  size  at  the  same  time,  and  to  accom- 
plish this  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  only  the  large  seed. 
Where  the  seed  as  ordinarily  obtained  in  the  market  is 
used,  about  35  per  cent  of  the  crop  will  reach  marketable 


124  RADISH. 

size  in  from  35  to  40  days,  28  per  cent  will  require  15 
days  longer,  while  the  rest  will  in  all  probability  never 
be  worth  anything.  By  using  only  the  large  seed,  90  per 
cent  of  the  crop  will  come  in  at  one  time,  thus  making  it 
possible  to  pull  practically  all  the  crop  at  once  and  imme- 
diately replant.  As  obtained  in  the  market,  about  one- 
third  of  the  seeds  are  too  small  to  use,  and  consequently 
are  thrown  away. 

Two  pounds  of  seed  was  screened  so  as  to  separate 
the  large  from  the  small  seed.  In  this  case  there  was 
obtained  from  the  2  pounds  of  seed  19^  ounces  of  large 
seed  and  10^  of  small.  The  remainder  was  made  up  of 
pieces  of  gravel  and  crushed  seed,  bits  of  sticks,  etc.  The 
seed  cost  wholesale  60  cents  per  pound,  and  if  one-third 
by  weight  is  thrown  away  it  brings  the  cost  up  to  80 
cents  per  pound.  This  is  a  very  small  matter,  however, 
in  view  of  the  many  advantages  resulting  from  the  use 
of  the  large  seed. 

For  screening  the  seed  we  use  a  sieve  made  as  fol- 
lows :  A  circular  piece  of  thin  sheet  brass  6  inches  in  di- 
ameter has  holes  2-25  of  an  inch  (2  mm.)  in  diameter 
punched  or  rather  cut  in  it,  the  holes  being  about  1-16  of 
an  inch  apart.  The  perforated  sheet  is  then  provided 
with  a  rim  of  brass  or  tin  2  inches  high.  We  have  then 
nothing  more  than  a  shallow  cup  or  basin,  with  numer- 
ous holes  in  the  bottom.  A  handful  or  more  of  seed  is 
placed  in  this  cup,  and  a  few  minutes'  shaking  will  cause 
all  the  small  seed  to  drop  through  the  holes,  while  the 
large  ones  which  cannot  get  through  remain  behind. 

Varieties  to  plant. —  In  our  experience,  most  of  the 
markets  prefer  a  bright  scarlet  turnip-shaped  root.  The 
pure  scarlets  always  sell  better  than  those  tinged  with 
purple,  or  having  white  tips.  Ne  Plus  Ultra,  Roman  Car- 
mine and  Prussian  Globe  have  proved  the  three  best 
kinds  for  forcing.  We  have  tried  20  or  25  other  varieties, 
but  soon  gave  them  up  on  account  of  various  undesir- 
able qualities. 


TREATMENT    OF    RADISHES.  125 

Preparing  the  crop  for  market.— When  the  crop  is 
ready  to  market,  which  will  generally  be  about  40  days 
from  the  time  of  planting,  the  roots  are  pulled  and  tied 
6  to  8  in  a  bunch,  or  12  to  16,  as  the  market  may  re- 
quire. Everything  is  pulled  clean,  and  when  a  sufficient 
number  of  bunches  is  obtained  they  are  thrown  into  a 
tank,  tub  or  barrel  and  washed  in  clean  water.  Ordinarily 
there  is  very  little  soil  adhering  to  the  roots,  so  that  the 
washing  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter.  Care  must  be 
exercised,  however,  in  keeping  the  water  clean,  otherwise 
the  radishes  will  go  to  market  lacking  the  gloss  that 
helps  to  sell  them. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  pulled  the  ground  should 
immediately  be  forked  over,  smoothed,  and  planted,  as  al- 
ready described.  Following  the  foregoing  plan,  the  first 
crop  will  be  ready  for  market  about  Thanksgiving,  the 
second  crop  January  5  to  10,  the  third  crop  the  last  week 
in  February,  and  the  fourth  crop  the  first  week  in  April. 
After  this  the  house  will  pay  better  planted  to  cucumbers, 
which  should  by  this  time  be  in  6  or  8  inch  pots. 

Approximate  yields  per  square  foot. —  A  square  foot  of 
ground  should  yield  on  an  average  16  bunches  of  rad- 
ishes, 6  to  8  in  a  bunch,  in  the  period  extending  from 
October  15  to  April  10.  The  price  will  average  2  cents 
per  bunch,  making  the  returns  32  cents  per  square  foot. 

Temperature,  moisture,  insects  and  diseases. —  The  rad- 
ish cannot  be  pushed  by  heat.  A  night  temperature  of 
45°  to  50°,  with  20°  to  25°  more  during  the  day,  is  about 
right.  If  too  much  bottom  heat  is  given  the  plant  will 
run  to  top.  Watering  should  be  carefully  done,  and  in 
no  case  should  the  soil  be  allowed  to  become  dry  enough 
for  the  plants  to  wilt.  In  such  cases  a  heavy  watering 
is  likely  to  cause  the  radishes  to  crack,  thus  rendering 
them  unfit  for  market. 

Insects  and  diseases  cause  very  little  trouble.  Green- 
fly sometimes  proves  difficult  to  manage,  but  a  light  fumi- 
gation every  *wo  weeks  with  tobacco  stems  will  keep  the 


126  RADISH. 

pest  in  check.  The  only  disease  worthy  ol  mention  is 
the  cracking,  to  which  reference  has  been  made.  Too 
much  manure  in  the  soil  and  the  improper  use  of  water 
are  largely  responsible  for  this  trouble.  The  remedy  is 
obvious. 

Summary. — (i)  Radishes  may  be  successfully  grown  in 
almost  any  kind  of  a  house. 

(2)  The   soil    should    be  moderately  heavy,    and    hold 
water,  but  not  bake  or  crack. 

(3)  Solid  beds  are  preferable  to  benches,  because  the 
conditions  of  moisture  and   heat  may  be   kept  more   uni- 
form and  the  expense  is  less. 

(4)  Two  men  should  plant   150  square  feet  per  hour, 
using  3  ounces  of  seed  in  the  work. 

(5)  The  seed  should  be  screened  and  all  less  than  2-25 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  should  be  thrown  away.     By  fol- 
lowing this   plan  90  per  cent  of  the  crop  will  attain  mar- 
ketable size  at  the  same  time. 

(6)  Ne  Plus  Ultra,  Roman  Carmine  and  Prussian  Globe 
have  proved  the  best  varieties  for  forcing. 

(7)  Four  crops  may  be  grown  from  October  15  to 
April  10,  and  the  returns  should  average  30  to  32  cents 
per  square  foot. 


CHAPTER   VII. 


ASPARAGUS    AND    RHUBARB. 

ASPARAGUS  and  rhubarb  are  generally  forced  from 
transplanted  roots.  That  is,  strong  plants,  four  or  more 
years  old,  are  dug  from  the  field  and  taken  to  the  house 
for  forcing.  The  crop  is  produced  chiefly  from  the  nour- 
ishment which  is  stored  in  the  roots,  and  the  roots  are 
exhausted  by  the  crop,  and  are  then  thrown  away. 

Inasmuch  as  the  plants  do  not  grow  by  becoming 
rooted  and  established  in  the  soil  after  their  removal  to 
the  house,  it  follows  that  they  do  not  demand  direct  sun- 
light. In  fact,  the  product  may  be  tenderer  and  more  sale- 
able for  being  grown  in  a  dull  or  even  a  nearly  dark 
place.  The  roots  are  usually  set  underneath  the  benches 
in  the  glass  house,  but  they  may  be  set  in  the  potting- 
room  (if  warm  enough),  or  even  in  the  cellar  near  the 
heater.  The  most  rapid  growth  will  be  secured  when  the 
temperature  is  high  (even  as  high  as  70°  at  night),  but  a 
stockier  and  better  product  may  often  be  grown  when  the 
temperature  is  somewhat  lower. 

There  are  various  means  of  forcing  asparagus  and  rhu- 
barb where  they  stand,  in  the  field.  One  of  the  common- 
est is  to  place  the  half  of  a  barrel  over  a  clump  in  very 
early  spring,  and  then  to  pile  fermenting  horse  manure 
about  the  barrel.  The  heat  from  the  manure  will  start 
the  plant  into  a  precocious  growth.  In  Europe,  aspara- 
gus is  sometimes  forced  where  it  grows  by  piling  manure 
into  trenches  which  are  dug  (and  sometimes  bricked  up, 
with  openings  in  the  walls)  between  the  rows.  These 

("7) 


128  ASPARAGUS    AND    RHUBARB. 

trenches  are  sometimes  heated  by  hot-water  pipes.  In 
some  instances,  sashes  are  placed  over  the  plants  tem- 
porarily. 

These  various  practices  have  suggested  the  idea  that 
asparagus,  rhubarb,  sea-kale,  and  the  like,  might  be  per- 
manently grown  in  a  house  with  a  removable  roof,  so 
that  heat  could  be  applied  to  them  late  in  winter,  and 
the  roof  then  be  removed  and  the  plants  find  themselves 
growing  out  of  doors  in  normal  conditions.  If  the  ground 
were  well  enriched,  it  would  seem  that  such  plantations 


41.    Frame-work  and  heating  pipes  of  Cornell  asparagus  house. 

ought  to  be  able  to  be  forced  for  several  or  many  years 
in  succession.  Acting  upon  this  suggestion,  an  aspara- 
gus house  has  been  erected  at  Cornell.  The  experience 
with  this  house  has  not  been  sufficiently  extended  to 
warrant  any  conclusions  from  the  experiment,  but  it 
promises  well,  and  a  description  of  it  may  be  suggestive 
to  the  reader  who  is  interested  in  the  forcing  of  aspara- 
gus or  rhubarb. 


AN    ASPARAGUS    HOUSE. 


129 


This  Cornell  asparagus  house  —  if  it  may  be  called  a 
house  —  is  about  20x50  ft,  and  the  frame  is  made  of 
steam  pipes  (Fig.  41,  page  128).  The  sides  or  walls  are 
only  18  in.  high,  and  the  frame  consists  simply  of  a  ridge 
and  three  pairs  of  rafters.  The  steam-heating  pipe,  or 


42.      The  asparagus    house  covered  with  canvas. 

riser,  is  seen  at  A,  just  beneath  the  ridge,  and  this  feeds 
two  returns  upon  either  side  of  the  house,  next  the  walls. 
When  it  is  desired  to  force  the  asparagus,  canvas  or  mus- 
lin is  stretched  over  the  frame  (as  in  Fig.  42).  No  diffi- 
culty has  been  found  in  starting  the  asparagus  into  growth 
in  January  and  February.  The  cover  is  left  on  and  the  heat 


130  ASPARAGUS   AND    RHUBARB. 

kept  up  until  all  danger  of  frost  is  past,  when  the  canvas 
is  removed  and  the  plants  grow  naturally  out  of  doors. 
It  is  probable  that  some  such  plan  as  this  will  be  found 
to  be  perfectly  practicable  in  the  forcing  of  asparagus  and 
rhubarb,  and  thus  obviate  the  wasteful  methods  now  in 
use  of  forcing  and  destroying  transplanted  roots.  The 
secret  of  this  method  will  no  doubt  be  found  to  lie  in 
allowing  the  plantation  to  become  very  thoroughly  es- 
tablished (at  least  three  or  four  years  old)  before  forc- 
ing is  attempted,  in  the  very  best  tillage  and  fertilizing 
during  the  summer  whilst  the  plants  are  growing,  in  tak- 
ing off  the  cover  just  as  soon  as  settled  weather  comes, 
and  in  not  cutting  the  plants  after  that  time. 

ASPARAGUS. 

The  most  essential  point  in  the  forcing  of  asparagus 
from  transplanted  roots,  is  to  have  very  strong  roots. 
They  should  not  be  less  than  four  years  old  from  the 
planting  of  the  bed,  and  five  and  six-year  roots  are  com- 
monly better.  It  is  often  almost  impossible  to  secure 
good  roots,  for  the  best  roots  are  the  ones  which  the 
asparagus  grower  most  desires  to  keep  in  his  plantation. 
The  two  circumstances  which  yield  the  best  roots,  as  a 
rule,  are  the  growing  of  the  plantation  for  this  particular 
purpose,  and  the  taking  out  of  alternate  rows  in  planta- 
tions which  have  become  too  crowded.  The  grower  is 
often  obliged  to  take  the  roots  from  old  and  partially 
spent  beds,  but  the  best  results  are  not  always  secured 
from  such  stock. 

The  roots  are  dug  as  late  in  the  fall  as  possible,  care 
being  taken  not  to  break  the  clumps,  and  to  retain  as 
much  soil  as  possible,  and  they  are  then  piled  in  a  shed 
or  cold  cellar  where  they  can  be  had  as  wanted.  In  this 
storage,  they  should  be  covered  with  earth  or  litter  to 
prevent  them  from  drying  out,  and  freezing  is  supposed 
to  add  to  their  value  for  forcing. 


ASPARAGUS  UNDER  BENCHES.  13! 

The  roots  are  commonly  forced  under  the  benches  of 
a  forcing-house.  They  may  be  handled  in  a  hotbed,  but 
as  hotbeds  are  outside  the  purpose  of  this  book,  ihis 
method  of  forcing  will  not  be  discussed  in  detail.  It  may 
be  said,  however,  that  forcing  in  hotbeds  differs  in  no 
important  respect  from  forcing  in  the  house.  A  space  is 
made  under  the  bench  at  least  3  inches  deeper  than  the 
clumps  which  it  is  desired  to  force.  This  space  may  be 
either  a  pit  dug  into  the  ground,  or  it  may  be  formed  by 
boards  upon  top  of  the  earth.  The  pit  will  generally  need 
to  be  at  least  a  foot  deep.  In  the  bottom  is  placed  a 
couple  of  inches  of  good  soil,  and  upon  this  soil  the 
clumps  are  solidly  placed,  standing  them  as  close  together 
as  possible.  Earth  is  now  filled  in  between  the  clumps, 
and  the  crowns  are  covered  with  earth  at  least  an  inch 
deep.  If  it  is  desired  to  bleach  the  asparagus,  6  or  8 
inches  of  soil  should  be  covered  over  the  clumps. 

The  temperature  should  be  kept  rather  low  for  a  few 
days,  until  the  roots  become  thoroughly  settled  in  place. 
After  that,  the  temperature  may  be  raised  to  that  re- 
quired for  roses,  or  even  higher.  Very  high  tempera- 
tures give  spindling  shoots.  It  is  essential  that  the  roots 
be  profusely  watered.  New  roots  are  brought  in  every 
three  or  four  weeks,  to  give  a  succession. 

The  following  are  actual  dates  of  asparagus  forcing, 
under  benches,  at  Cornell :  Plants  taken  from  an  old 
patch  November  20,  1893,  and  set  under  benches  three 
days  later.  December  4,  plants  just  pushing  through.  De- 
cember 8,  first  shoots  cut,  averaging  9  inches  long.  De- 
cember 14,  first  good  cutting,  shoots  running  from  6  to  15 
inches  long.  December  18,  second  good  cutting.  De- 
cember 26,  a  good  cutting,  some  of  the  shoots  having  re- 
mained too  long  and  become  woody ;  some  of  these 
shoots  were  2  ft.  long.  January  10,  a  heavy  cutting. 
January  19,  cut  about  half  as  many  shoots  as  on  the  loth. 
January  30,  cut  about  as  much  as  on  the  igth,  but  shoots 
growing  smaller.  February  10,  small  cutting  of  weak 

IO  FORC. 


132  ASPARAGUS   AND    RHUBARB. 

shoots.  Beyond  this  time  there  were  no  shoots  worth 
cutting.  These  plants  were  forced  most  too  rapidly  at 
first,  with  the  result  of  getting  too  many  spindling  shoots. 
John  Gardner's  method.*— "I  prefer  roots  three  or  four 
years  old  for  forcing ;  but  the  age  is  immaterial,  provided 
a  vigorous  growth  has  been  made  the  previous  season. 
The  roots  are  originally  planted  out  in  rows  5  feet  apart 
and  a  foot  apart  in  the  row,  covered  with  3  inches  of  soil, 
and  cultivated  as  for  an  ordinary  crop.  When  wanted 
for  forcing  the  roots  are  plowed  out,  with  as  little  damage 
to  them  as  possible.  In  neighborhoods  where  asparagus 
is  grown  for  market,  farmers  will  often  plant  as  above, 
and  then,  in  the  third  or  fourth  year,  will  plow  out  every 
other  row  to  be  used  for  forcing,  leaving  permanent  rows 
10  feet  apart.  At  this  distance  the  ground  can  be  thor- 
oughly tilled,  and  abundant  light,  warmth  and  air  will 
make  strong  crowns,  so  that  an  early  crop  of  the  first 
quality  can  be  expected.  Roots  to  be  forced  are  placed 
in  a  pit  under  the  benches  and  heated  with  hot  water. 
They  are  placed  on  2  inches  of  soil,  and  covered  with  4 
to  5  inches  to  blanch  the  shoots.  Cutting  will  be  in  order 
about  15  days  after  the  roots  are  put  in,  and  the  same 
roots  will  produce  profitable  shoots  for  six  weeks.  As- 
paragus can  be  forced  on  greenhouse  benches,  in  frames 
or  in  hotbeds,  where  the  manure  is  not  too  fresh,  so  as  to 
generate  too  much  heat  and  steam.  I  have  seen  the 
best  of  '  grass '  grown  in  a  common  frame,  with  18 
inches  of  leaves  and  manure  to  ferment  and  give  heat, 
and  a  covering  thrown  over  the  frame  at  night.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  asparagus  starts  with  very  little  heat, 
45  degrees  being  sufficient  to  start  it  in  the  soil." 

Forcing  in  hotbeds. t — "A  most  suitable  place  for  forc- 
ing asparagus  is  a  frame  about  4  feet  deep,  with  one  4-inch 
hot-water  pipe  running  around  it.  About  2^  feet  of  fresh 

*  Garden  and  Forest,  ii.  598  (Dec.  n,  1889). 

t  William  Scott  in  Garden  and  Forest,  vii.  478  (Nov.  28,  1894). 


ASPARAGUS    IN    HOTBEDS. 


133 


stable  litter  should  be  put  into  the  frame  and  firmly 
packed,  with  an  inch  or  two  of  sand  spread  over  it.  This 
bed  should  be  allowed  to  stand  until  the  heat  of  the  ma- 


43.    Rhubarb  under  a  forcing-house  bench. 

nure  has  declined  to  about  70  degrees,  and  not  below  65 
degrees,  before  the  crowns  are  placed  on  it.  For  this 
work  advantage  should  be  taken  of  a  day  when  the 
weather  is  mild,  as  the  crowns  are  easily  damaged  by 
frost.  Large  crowns  five  or  six  years  old  are  preferable 


134  ASPARAGUS   AND    RHUBARB. 

to  smaller  ones  for  forcing.  They  may  be  placed  rather 
closely  together  in  the  frame,  but  the  distance  apart  must 
be  regulated  by  their  size.  The  roots  should  be  spread 
evenly  over  the  surface  and  covered  with  6  inches  of 
sand.  Little  water  will  be  required,  as  the  steam  from 
the  manure  affords  considerable  moisture,  but  if  the  bed 
should  become  dry  it  may  be  moistened  with  water  of  the 
same  temperature  as  the  soil  in  the  frame.  A  little  air 
may  be  admitted  when  the  day  is  bright  and  warm,  to 
keep  the  temperature  from  rising  above  80  degrees. 
When  the  points  of  the  shoots  begin  to  appear  above  the 
sand  the  crop  is  ready  to  cut.  Where  ground  is  plentiful 
a  supply  of  forcing  crowns  can  be  kept  up  by  sowing  a 
little  seed  every  year,  having  five  or  six  successions,  the 
oldest  plants  being  forced  for  cutting." 


The  forcing  of  pie-plant  does  not  differ  essentially  from 
the  forcing  of  asparagus.  Thoroughly  established  clumps 
are  dug  in  the  fall,  and  these  are  packed  in  beds  under- 
neath the  benches,  sifting  the  soil  in  tightly  between  the 
clumps,  and  then  covering  them  with  2  to  6  inches  of  soil. 
The  temperature  should  range  as  for  lettuce  or  roses,  or 
for  very  quick  results  it  may  be  considerably  higher.  The 
length  of  time  required  for  securing  the  saleable  product 
is  about  the  same  as  that  required  for  asparagus,  or  per- 
haps a  little  longer.  About  four  or  five  weeks  after  the 
planting  under  the  benches  is  the  usual  time  required  for 
the  first  profitable  cutting.  Paragon  and  Linnaeus  varie- 
ties may  be  used  for  the  earliest  results,  but  the  best 
crops  are  to  be  obtained  from  some  of  the  larger  kinds, 
like  Victoria  and  Mammoth. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 


MISCELLANEOUS  COOL   PLANTS. 


PEAS  are  very  little  known  as  a  winter  crop,  although 
there  is  no  particular  difficulty  in  growing  them.  The 
yield  is  so  small  and  the  price  so  little  that  they  are  not 
often  profitable,  yet  a  few  persons  have  found  them  to 
pay.  They  may  be  grown  in  narrow  boxes  (about  6 
inches  wide  and  as  many  inches  deep),  and  these  boxes 
are  then  placed  in  odd  or  vacant  places  about  the  house. 
If  the  boxes  are  3  feet  or  more  in  length,  the  soil  can 
be  kept  in  a  uniform  condition  of  moisture  without  great 
trouble.  The  boxes  should  be  kept  very  cool  for  a 
time  —  not  much  above  freezing, —  but  when  the  plants 
appear  they  may  be  given  the  temperature  of  lettuce  or 
carnations.  The  greater  yields  are  obtained  from  the 
pole  varieties,  but  the  earlier  results  from  the  dwarf  va- 
rieties like  American  Wonder. 

Experiments  at  Cornell.*  — During  the  past  few  years, 
peas  have  at  various  times  been  grown  in  the  forcing- 
houses  at  Cornell  with  the  intention  of  determining  their 
value  as  a  commercial  crop,  and  also  to  study  their  be- 
havior under  glass.  The  forcing  of  peas  has  been  car- 
ried on  in  northern  Europe  for  many  years,  although  on 
a  somewhat  different  plan  from  that  undertaken  at  this 
Station.  Foreign  gardeners  generally  grow  the  winter 

*  E.  G.  Lodcman,  Bulletin  96,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 
(135) 


136  MISCELLANEOUS    COOL    PLANTS. 

crop  in  frames  or  hotbeds.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Paris 
such  protection  is  unnecessary,  and  successive  sowings 
are  made  in  the  open  ground  from  November  to  March, 
one  of  the  most  popular  varieties  for  this  purpose  being 
St.  Catherine  (Pois  de  Sainte- Catherine).  This  variety  is 
particularly  well  adapted  to  late  fall  and  early  winter 
sowings.  In  more  northern  latitudes,  either  coldframes  or 
hotbeds  supply  the  necessary  protection  for  maturing  the 
crop.  Ringleader,  Early  Dwarf  Frame,  and  Caractacus 
have  been  very  popular  in  England.  The  second  named 
variety  is  especially  adapted  for  growing  in  hotbeds.  It 
is  exceedingly  dwarf  and  matures  very  quickly,  so  that 
considerable  quantities  of  peas  may  be  harvested  from  a 
small  area.  Taller  varieties  are  generally  bent  over  to 
admit  of  their  proper  growth. 

Peas  thrive  in  a  cool  temperature,  and  the  protection 
afforded  by  comparatively  little  glass  or  wood  is  sufficient 
to  carry  them  through  moderately  cold  weather.  In  the 
northern  states,  artificial  heat  must  be  given  if  the  crop 
is  to  be  grown  during  the  winter  months.  As  this  cannot 
be  done  conveniently  in  frames,  larger  structures  must  be 
employed,  and  these  may  easily  be  supplied  with  a 
proper  amount  of  heat  for  growing  this  vegetable.  A 
night  temperature  of  40°  to  50°,  and  a  day  temperature  10 
to  20  degrees  higher,  will  be  sufficient  to  cause  rapid 
growth  and  fairly  prolific  plants.  Peas  succeed  best,  as  a 
rule,  if  grown  in  solid  beds  of  rich,  sandy  soil  that  is  well 
supplied  with  water.  If  peas  grown  under  glass  are  sub- 
jected to  the  above  conditions,  their  cultivation  presents 
no  serious  difficulties,  and  it  will  scarcely  be  necessary 
to  mention  the  details  of  more  than  one  crop  which 
we  have  grown. 

Seeds  of  two  varieties  of  peas  were  sown  January  6, 
1894 ;  they  were  Extra  Early  Market  and  Rural  New- 
Yorker.  They  were  planted  at  the  same  depth  as  in 
outdoor  culture,  but  the  seed  was  sown  more  thickly,  and 
the  rows  were  as  close  to  each  other  as  the  after  culture 


PEAS    IN    WINTER. 


137 


138  MISCELLANEOUS    COOL    PLANTS. 

of  the  crop  would  allow.  Very  dwarf  varieties,  such  as 
Tom  Thumb  and  American  Wonder,  may  be  planted  in 
rows  3  to  5  inches  apart,  depending  on  the  richness  of 
the  soil  and  the  general  care  given  the  plants.  Tall-grow- 
ing varieties,  as  Champion  of  England,  may  be  sown  in 
rows  running  in  pairs,  the  distance  between  the  rows  of 
each  pair  being  from  6  to  10  inches,  while  the  pairs  are 
separated  by  spaces  15  to  18  inches  wide.  This  will 
allow  working-room  among  the  plants  and  still  admit  of 
heavy  planting. 

One  of  the  essential  points  in  the  successful  growing 
of  peas,  whether  in  a  greenhouse  or  out  of  doors,  is  the 
use  of  fresh  seed.  Garden  peas  retain  their  vitality  from 
three  to  eight  years,  but  the  shorter  period  may  be  con- 
sidered as  more  nearly  correct  when  applied  to  varieties 
which  are  to  be  forced,  since  the  loss  of  a  week  or  two 
under  glass  is  expensive,  and  two  sowings  cannot  well  be 
afforded.  The  seedlings  began  to  appear  eight  days  after 
seed  sowing  and  they  grew  vigorously  from  the  start. 
February  23,  Rural  New-Yorker  showed  the  first  opened 
blossoms,  Extra  Early  Market  at  the  same  time  having 
buds  which  were  about  to  open. 

On  the  2oth  of  March,  or  about  73  days  from  sowing 
the  seed,  both  varieties  had  matured  sufficiently  to  supply 
pods  that  were  fit  for  market,  but  no  picking  was  made 
until  ii  days  later,  when  the  plants  yielded  pods  at  the 
rate  of  6>£  quarts  for  each  30  feet  of  double  row.  There 
was  practically  no  difference  between  the  two  varieties  as 
regards  earliness  or  the  amount  of  yield  obtained.  Two 
weeks  later,  a  second  and  last  picking  was  made,  the 
plants  yielding  only  one-half  as  much  as  before.  This 
brings  the  total  yield  to  a  little  over  a  peck.  This  is 
scarcely  a  profitable  crop,  especially  since  the  varieties 
grown  are  quite  tall,  and  required  a  trellis. 

Formerly,  the  trellises  used  consisted  of  branches 
forced  into  the  ground  so  that  they  would  afford  support 
to  the  vines;  but  with  the  crop  here  considered,  a  more 


PEAS    AND    CELERY.  139 

satisfactory  trellis  was  made  by  using  a  wire  netting  hav- 
ing large  meshes.  This  was  fastened  between  the  rows 
by  means  of  stakes,  and  thus  each  strip  of  netting  served 
as  a  support  for  a  double  row.  This  forms  the  neatest 
and  most  substantial  trellis  here  used  for  supporting  the 
vines. 

The  yields  from  extremely  dwarf  varieties,  such  as 
Tom  Thumb,  have  proved  unsatisfactory.  The  plants  re- 
quire no  support,  but  they  yield  only  one  picking,  and 
this  is  so  light  that  their  culture  under  glass  cannot  in 
all  cases  be  advised. 

Peas  grown  under  glass  are  sensitive  to  heat,  and  the 
warm  spring  days,  when  accompanied  by  sunshine,  check 
their  growth  to  a  marked  degree.  The  most  healthy 
growth  is  made  during  the  cold  months  of  the  year,  and 
after  April  i  not  much  should  be  expected  from  the 
vines  unless  steps  are  taken  to  keep  the  house  as  cool 
as  possible.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  shading,  and 
by  a  free  use  of  water  upon  the  walks  of  the  house. 

From  a  financial  standpoint,  the  growing  of  peas  can 
scarcely  be  advised,  but  amateurs  may  derive  much  satis- 
faction from  their  cultivation,  as  the  plants  are  easily 
grown,  they  require  little  care,  and  the  quality  of  the 
peas  is  especially  appreciated  when  no  fresh  ones  are 
on  the  market. 


Celery  practically  goes  out  of  the  market  in  April. 
The  stored  crop  is  then  exhausted,  and  until  the  earliest 
field  product  is  received,  in  July,  celery  is  not  to  be  had. 
There  should  be  some  means  of  supplying  the  demand 
in  May  and  June.  Some  three  or  four  years  ago,  we 
turned  our  attention  to  this  problem,  and  we  now  feel 
that  it  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  grow  celery  for 
late  spring  and  early  summer  use. 

\Ve  sow  the  seed  in  late  fall  or  early  winter,  in  flats 


I40 


MISCELLANEOUS    COOL    PLANTS. 


or  seed-pans.  The  young  plants  grow  very  slowly,  and 
we  make  no  effort  to  hasten  them.  About  a  month  after 
the  seeds  are  sown,  the  plants  are  pricked  out  into  other 
flats,  where  they  are  allowed  to  stand  3  or  4  inches  apart 
each  way.  A  month  or  so  later,  they  are  transplanted 
into  beds,  following  lettuce,  cauliflower,  chrysanthemums, 
or  other  crops.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  for  two  months 
or  more  the  plants  take  up  little  or  no  room,  for  the  flats 
are  placed  in  vacant  places  here  and  there  throughout  the 
house,  and  they  need  little  other  care  than  watering. 
They  should  be  kept  cool  — in  a  house  used  for  lettuce, 
violets,  carnations  and  the  like— for  if  one  attempts  to 
force  them  they  will  likely 
run  to  seed.  When  the 
plants  are  finally  trans- 
planted, we  prefer  to  put 
them  in  solid  beds  with- 
out bottom  heat. 

In  six  weeks  to  two  months 
after  the  plants  are  turned  into 
their  permanent  quarters  they  will 
be  ready  to  bleach,  and  this  opera- 
tion has  caused  us  more  trouble 
than  all  other  difficulties  combined. 
Our  first  thought  was  to  set  the 
plants  very  close  together,  so  that 
they  would  bleach  themselves, 
after  the  manner  of  the  "New 
Celery  Culture,"  but  it  would  not 
work.  The  plants  ran  too  much 
to  foliage,  and  they  tended  to 
damp-off  or  rot  where  they 
were  too  close.  We  next 
tried  darkening  the  house, 
but  without  success.  We  then  attempted  to  bleach  the 
plants  by  partially  burying  them  in  sand  in  a  cellar,  but 
this  also  failed.  Finally,  we  tried  various  methods  oi 


5.   Winter  celery 
paper. 


bleaching 


CELERY   AND    SALADS.  14! 

tying  up  or  enclosing  each  midwinter  plant  as  it  stood  in 
the  bed.  Tiles  placed  about  the  plants  —  which  are  so 
successful  in  the  field, —  rotted  the  plants  in  the  moist  air 
of  the  forcing-house.  Heavy  bibulous  paper  did  the 
same.  But  thick,  hard  wrapping  paper,  with  an  almost 
"sized"  surface,  proved  to  be  an  admirable  success. 
The  stalks  were  brought  together  and  tied,  and  a  width 
of  paper  reaching  to  within  2  or  3  inches  of  the  tips 
of  the  leaves  was  rolled  tightly  about  the  plant.  As 
the  plant  grew,  another  width  of  paper  was  rolled  about 
the  first,  and  again  reaching  nearly  the  top  of  the  plant. 
Two  applications  of  the  paper  are  sufficient.  A  month  to 
six  weeks  is  required  to  bleach  the  celery  by  this  process 
in  a  cool  house  in  April  and  May.  Fig.  45  (page  140) 
shows  the  method  of  bleaching  with  the  paper. 

The  seeds  for  one  of  our  crops  of  house  celery  were 
sown  December  10,  1894 ;  pricked  off,  January  8  ;  planted 
in  beds,  February  6  ;  first  tied  up  in  paper,  April  12  ; 
second  tying,  May  9  ;  celery  fit  to  use,  May  21  to  June  20. 
The  Kalamazoo  celery  is  well  adapted  to  house  cultiva- 
tion The  quality  of  this  house-grown  product  is  equal  to 
that  grown  in  the  field. 


SALADS,    POT-HERBS,    AND  MINTS. 

Water-cress.  —  Persons  who  are  fond  of  water-cress 
should  know  that  no  plant  is  easier  to  grow  under 
benches  in  greenhouses.  If  there  is  an  earth  floor  under 
the  benches  of  a  cool  or  intermediate  house,  the  plant 
will  take  care  of  itself  when  once  introduced,  provided, 
of  course,  there  is  sufficient  moisture.  Fig.  46  (page 
142)  shows  a  mat  of  water-cress  growing  under  a  bench 
in  a  general  conservatory  house,  near  the  overflow  of  a 
lank.  It  is  not  necessary  to  supply  water  in  which  the 
plant  may  grow,  but  it  thrives  well,  with  its  characteristic 
flavor,  in  soil  which  is  simply  uniformly  moist  and  cool. 
The  plants  may  be  gathered  from  brooks  or  other  places 


142 


MISCELLANEOUS    COOL    PLANTS. 


46.   Water-cress  under  a  bench. 


where  it  is  established,   and    planted    at  intervals  under 
either  north  or  south  benches,  and  when  once  colonized 

it    needs    no    re- 
newing. 

Garden  -  cress. 
—  T  h  e  ordinary 
French  or  g  a  r- 
den  cress  (varie- 
ties of  Lepidium 
sativum)  also 
thrives  well  un- 
der glass.  We 
have  grown  both 
the  plain  and 
curled  -  leaved 
forms  upon 
benches  or  beds 
along  with  lettuce  and  spinach.  The  seed  is  sown  di- 
rectly where  the  plants  are  to  stand.  The  plant  grows 
quickly,  and  the  early,  tender  leaves  should  be  used 
before  it  runs  to  seed. 

Parsley.  —  No  vegetable  is  more  readily  grown  in 
winter  than  parsley.  The  seed  is  sown  in  the  open  in 
spring,  and  the  plants  receive  the  ordinary  care  during 
the  summer.  In  the  fall,  the  strong  roots  are  lifted  and 
planted  in  a  bed  or  bench  in  a  lettuce  house.  The  plants 
are  headed  down  when  transplanted,  and  the  sunlight  is 
kept  off  them  for  a  few  days  until  they  are  thoroughly 
established.  After  that,  they  need  no  extra  or  unusual 
care.  Parsley  will  thrive  well  in  the  dark  end  of  the 
house,  or  in  almost  any  odd  corner,  as  behind  a  door  or 
in  the  shade  next  the  wall.  The  plants  should  be  re- 
newed each  year.  The  most  satisfactory  variety  is  the 
Curled  or  Fern-leaved. 

Spinach  was  formerly  grown  in  frames  and  hotbeds, 
and  sometimes  in  glass  houses,  but  the  length  of  time  re- 
quired to  bring  it  to  maturity,  and  the  competition  of  the 


MUSTARD,   DANDELION,  AND    MINTS.  143 

southern-grown  product,  make  it  unprofitable.  Only  now 
and  then  is  a  man  found  who  is  able  to  make  frame- 
grown  spinach  pay.  We  have  grown  it  in  the  forcing- 
house,  and  find  that  it  forces  readily  with  the  same  tem- 
perature and  treatment  which  are  given  to  lettuce. 

Mustard.  —  Any  of  the  pot-herb  mustards  are  easily 
grown  in  a  lettuce  or  carnation  house.  One  of  the  best 
types  is  the  Chinese  mustard.  This  makes  an  attractive 
edging  to  chrysanthemum  or  lily  beds.  The  seeds  are 
sown  where  the  plants  are  to  stand,  although  they  may 
be  sown  in  pots  or  flats  and  the  plants  transplanted  to 
their  permanent  quarters. 

Dandelion. — This  plant  is  grown  somewhat  extensively 
in  the  open  in  parts  of  the  eastern  states,  particularly 
about  Boston,  for  greens.  It  is  also  occasionally  forced. 
Spring-sown  plants  are  lifted  in  the  fall  and  transplanted 
to  a  cool  house.  The  leaves  should  be  ready  for  cutting 
by  the  holidays.  As  soon  as  the  cutting  is  completed, 
the  crowns  are  thrown  out  and  the  bed  or  bench  is  used 
for  other  crops.  The  French  improved  varieties  are  the 
kinds  of  dandelions  to  be  grown.  The  crop  of  these 
may  be  followed  by  lettuce,  White  Spine  cucumbers  or 
radishes. 

Mints  of  various  kinds  are  readily  grown  in  cool 
houses,  such  as  are  adapted  to  lettuce  and  violets.  The 
species  most  commonly  grown  are  sage  and  spearmint 
(Mentha  viridis),  for  which  there  is  generally  a  good  de- 
mand, in  eastern  cities,  at  Thanksgiving  and  Christmas. 
Sods  of  the  sage  or  mint  may  be  dug  and  placed  directly 
in  the  house,  care  being  taken  to  cut  the  sods  very  deep, 
and  not  to  break  them  in  the  transfer.  Better  results  are 
obtained,  however,  by  planting  the  mint  permanently  in  a 
solid  bed,  and  covering  it  over  with  sash  at  forcing  time. 
Heating  pipes  should  be  laid  alongside  the  bed.  From 
six  to  eight  weeks  are  required  to  bring  the  mint  to  cut- 
ting size. 


144  MISCELLANEOUS    COOL    PLANTS. 

ONION. 

We  have  had  good  success  in  growing  multiplier  or 
potato  onions  under  glass,  planting  them  in  a  lettuce  bed, 
where  they  will  give  bunch  onions  in  six  or  seven  weeks. 
In  a  warmer  temperature,  they  become  very  strong  in 
flavor.  We  have  not  been  able  to  accomplish  any  useful 
results  with  onions  from  seeds,  however,  because  they 
grow  too  slow  and  are  not  inclined  to  bottom.  Neither 
have  we  succeeded  with  onions  from  sets,  although  we 
have  given  them  a  fair  trial  in  different  houses.  The  fol- 
lowing statements  upon  forcing  onions  from  sets  are  by 
W.  Van  Fleet,  of  New  Jersey,  in  answer  to  inquiries  re- 
specting the  forcing  of  bunch  onions  for  winter  market  :* 

"Three  or  four  inches  is  about  as  thick  as  they  can  be 
grown  ;  3  x  6  is  safer.  If  grown  3x4  inches,  alternate  rows 
may  be  taken  out  as  soon  as  large  enough  for  market. 
Use  one-fourth  to  one-third  rotted  manure,  the  rest  good, 
sandy  garden  loam  or  rotted  sods  ;  1-50  bone  dust,  or  1-150 
(in  bulk)  good  fertilizer  may  be  added  after  growth  has 
begun.  They  can  endure  more  cold  than  lettuce  or  rad- 
ishes, but  are  easily  checked  by  low  temperature  when  in 
full  growth.  Give  them  an  average  of  70°  F.  As  the 
leaves  do  not  cover  the  soil  and  prevent  evaporation,  there 
is  little  danger  from  over  watering;  nevertheless,  onions 
do  not  like  sodden  ground.  Have  the  benches  well 
drained  ;  water  thoroughly,  and  let  the  top  soil  dry  per- 
ceptibly before  repeating.  The  quick-growing  American 
varieties  give  best  results ;  Philadelphia,  Silverskin  and 
Yellow  Globe  Danvers  are  excellent.  The  sets  should  be 
carefully  selected,  of  uniform  shape,  and  less  than  one-half 
inch  in  diameter.  Onions  are  rarely  forced  under  glass 
now,  and  are  of  doubtful  profit,  owing  to  competition  from 
the  Egyptian  and  other  hardy  perennial  onions,  which  grow 
throughout  the  winter  in  the  south  and  are  shipped  to  the 
northern  markets  as  early  as  February.  There  is  a  possible 

•Rural  New-Yorker,  liii.  777  (December  8,  1894). 


ROOT  CROPS  fNDER  GLASS  145 

profit  in  growing  the  Egyptian  onion  under  glass  in  cold 
localities,  but  I  am  not  aware  that  it  has  been  tried  com- 
mercially. The  bulblets,  which  form  in  place  of  seed,  could 
be  planted  in  flats  of  rich  earth,  6  inches  deep,  well  watered 
and  attended  to  until  freezing  weather,  when  they  could  be 
covered  thickly  with  straw  until  needed,  or  brought  under 
glass  at  once.  The  after  treatment  would  be  similar,  ex- 
cept that  a  temperature  below  65°  would  prove  most  satis- 
factory." 

BEETS,    CARROTS,    AND   TURNIPS. 

The  root  crops  grow  readily  in  lettuce  beds,  but  their 
commercial  value  is  so 
small  and  the  length 
of  time  required  for 
their  growth  so  great 
that  they  are  rarely 
profitable.  Beets  are 
occasionally  grown 
between  the  late  win- 
ter crops  of  tomatoes 
or  cucumbers.  If  the 
house  has  grown  let- 
tuce or  other  cool 
crops,  the  beets  may 
be  transplanted  into 
the  beds  in  rows 
about  3  feet  apart, 
setting  the  cucumber 
plants  between  the 
rows.  The  beets 
should  be  off  by  the 
time  the  other  plants 
demand  all  the  room. 
The  turnip  beets  (like 
the  Egyptian),  half- 
long  carrots  and  early  varieties  of  turnips  are  the  varieties 


146  MISCELLANEOUS    COOL    PLANTS. 

best  adapted  to  forcing.  Carrots  are  slowest  to  mature, 
and  also  find  the  smallest  demand  in  the  market.  From 
three  to  four  months  are  required  to  secure  good  bottoms 
on  carrots.  For  home  use  these  root  crops  may  be  grown 
in  a  few  square  feet  of  soil  on  benches  which  grow  lettuce 
and  carnations  or  even  roses. 

POTATO. 

Potatoes  can  be  grown  on  spent  rose  or  lettuce  beds, 
or  under  benches  which  open  out  to  the  light.  We  have 
grown  a  bushel  of  tubers  in  a  thick  row  under  the  edge 
of  a  carnation  bench  some  40  feet  long.  They  need  no 
special  care.  Potatoes  are  sometimes  planted  in  ground 
beds  in  forcing-houses  in  late  winter  or  early  spring  after 
the  legitimate  winter  crops  are  harvested. 


The  pepino  or  melon  shrub  is  practically  unknown  as  a 
forcing-house  product.  The  first  critical  study  of  the  plant 
in  this  country  was  made  at  the  Cornell  Station  in  1891,  but 
Professor  Munson,  in  Maine,  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
person  to  make  a  success  of  it  as  a  fruit-bearing  plant  under 
glass.*  The  plant  is  an  undershrub,  making  a  neat  and 
spreading  bush  2  or  3  feet  high  when  a  year  old.  The  fruits 
are  oblong  and  somewhat  egg-shaped,  with  a  solid  and  seed- 
less flesh  and  a  cantaloupe-like  flavor.  It  more  closely  re- 
sembles the  eggplant  in  botanical  features  than  it  does  any 
other  fruit  plant  of  our  gardens.  It  is  propagated  by  cut- 
tings of  the  young  shoots  in  the  same  way  as  the  geranium 
or  tomato.  Cuttings  made  in  March  or  April  may  be  ex- 
pected to  make  fruit-bearing  plants  by  the  following  January 
or  February.  The  plants  should  be  carried  through  the 
summer  in  4-inch  or  5-inch  pots  and  transferred  to  6-inch 
pots  on  the  approach  of  winter.  They  should  be  grown  in 

*W.  M.  Munson,  in  Garden  and  Forest,  v.  173  (Apr.  13,  1892),  with 
illustration. 


THE  PEPINO  OR  MELON  SHRUB.  147 

a  cool  house,  with  no  bottom  heat.  A  lettuce  house  suits 
them  well.  In  such  temperature  strong  plants  may  be 
expected  to  yield  two  or  three  fruits  to  each  cluster. 

History  and  description  of  the  pepino.  —  This  interest- 
ing plant  is  so  little  known  that  I  append  a  somewhat 
full  account  of  it  :* 

Within  the  last  few  years  a  novelty  has  appeared  in 
the  seedsmen's  catalogues  under  the  name  of  Pepino, 
Melon  Pear,  Melon  Shrub,  and  Solatium  Guatemalense. 
Its  botanical  affinities,  as  well  as  its  horticultural  merits, 
have  been  a  perplexity.  The  plant  is  a  strong-growing 
herb  or  half-shrub  in  this  climate,  becoming  2  or  3  feet 
high  and  as  many  broad.  It  has  a  clean  and  attractive 
foliage,  comprised  of  long-lanceolate  nearly  smooth  very 
dark  green  entire  leaves.  It  is  a  profuse  bloomer,  the 
bright  blue  flowers  reminding  one  of  potato  flowers.  But 
one  fruit  commonly  sets  in  each  cluster,  and  as  this  grows 
the  stem  elongates  until  it  reaches  a  length  of  from  4  to 
6  inches.  The  fruit  itself  is  very  handsome.  As  it  ripens 
it  assumes  a  warm  yellow  color,  which  is  overlaid  with 
streaks  and  veins  of  violet-purple.  These  fruits  are  some- 
what egg-shaped,  conspicuously  pointed,  and  vary  from 
2>£  to  3>£  inches  in  length.  The  illustration,  Fig.  48 
(page  148),  shows  an  average  specimen  about  two- thirds 
natural  size.  If  the  fruits  are  still  green  upon  the  ap- 
proach of  frost,  they  may  be  placed  in  a  cool  dry  room, 
where,  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  weeks,  they  will 
take  on  their  handsome  color.  If  carefully  handled  or 
wrapped  in  paper,  the  fruits  will  keep  until  midwinter  or 
later.  The  fruit  is  pleasantly  scented,  and  the  flavor  of 
it  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a  juicy,  tender  and  some- 
what acid  eggplant.  It  is  eaten  either  raw  or  cooked. 

Upon  the  approach  of  winter  we  dig  up  some  ot  the 
plants  and  remove  them  to  the  conservatory  or  iorcing- 
house.  As  ornamental  plants  they  will  prove  to  be 

•From  Bulletin  37  (Dec.  1891).  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  (now  out  of  print). 
II   FORC. 


148  MISCELLANEOUS    COOL    PLANTS. 


Spray  and  fruit  of  the  pepino. 


THE    PEPINO.  149 

very  useful  in  this  latitude.  The  habit  is  attractive,  the 
flowers  bright  and  pleasant,  and  the  fruit  is  highly  orna- 
mental and  curious.  The  plant  will  stand  a  little  frost. 

The  plant  does  not  fruit  freely  with  us,  however, 
although  it  blooms  profusely.  We  have  endeavored  to 
insure  fruiting  by  hand  pollination,  but  without  success. 
The  anthers  give  very  little  pollen.  Perhaps  half  the 
plants  succeed  in  setting  two  or  three  fruits  apiece.  All 
the  fruits  which  we  have  raised  have  been  entirely  seed- 
less, and  this  appears  to  be  the  common  experience. 
The  seed-cavities  remain,  however,  as  shown  in  the  cross- 
section  in  Fig.  48.  The  plant  must  be  propagated  by 
cuttings  or  layers,  therefore.  We  obtained  our  stock 
from  a  botanical  specimen  which  I.  obtained  from  Florida, 
and  which  was  not  thoroughly  dried. 

This  plant  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  from 
Guatemala  fn  1882  by  Gustav  Eisen,  of  California.* 
There  has  been  much  speculation  as  to  its  nativity  and 
its  true  botanical  position.  At  first  it  was  thought  by 
some  to  be  a  variety  of  the  eggplant, f  but  it  is  very  dis- 
tinct from  that  species.  But  the  plant  is  by  no  means  a 
novelty  to  science  nor  even  to  cultivation,  for  it  was  ac- 
curately described  and  figured  so  early  as  1714  by  Feuillee 
in  his  account  of  travels  in  Peru.f  He  called  it  Melon- 
gena  laurifolia.  At  that  time  the  plant  bore  "  several 
little  lenticular  seeds,  one  line  broad."  It  was  carefully 
cultivated  in  gardens,  and  the  Indians  ate  it  with  delight. 
The  taste  is  described  as  somewhat  like  a  melon.  Eat- 
ing too  heartily  of  it  was  supposed  to  bring  on  fevers.  In 
Lima  it  is  called  Pepo.  In  1799  ^  was  again  described 
and  figured  by  botanists  visiting  Peru,  Ruiz  and  Pavon.|| 
They  described  the  fruit  as  "ovate,  pointed,  smooth  and 
shining,  white  variegated  with  purple,  hanging,  of  the 

*Orch.  and  Card.  x.  61  (1888). 
fGard.  Monthly,  xxix.  24,  48,  84,  120,  355  (1887). 
JJourn.  Obs.  Phys.  Math,  et  Bot.  735,  t.  26. 
|  Flora.  Peruviana,  ii.  az  t.  162  a. 


J5O  MISCELLANEOUS    COOL    PLANTS. 

shape  of  a  lemon."  They  say  that  it  was  much  cultivated 
in  Peru,  and  added  that  it  was  propagated  by  means  of 
cuttings.  It  was  called  "  Pepino  de  la  tierra."  In  1785, 
Thouin,  a  noted  French  gardener,  introduced  it  into 
Europe,  and  four  years  later  Aiton,  of  the  Royal  Garden 
at  Kew,  England,  named  it  So/anum  muricatitm*  The 
specific  name,  muricate  or  prickly,  was  given  in  reference 
to  the  rough  or  warty  character  of  the  sprouts  which 
spring  from  the  root,  and  which  are  often  used  for  propa- 
gation. And  now,  over  a  hundred  years  later,  it  has 
found  its  way  to  us. 

Mr.  Eisen's  account  of  the  pepino  will  be  interesting 
in  this  connection.  "The  Central  American  name  of  this 
plant,"  he  writes,  "is  pepino.  Under  this  name  it  is 
known  everywhere  in  the  Central  American  highlands, 
and  under  this  name  only.  But  as  pepino  in  Spanish 
also  means  cucumber,  it  was  thought  best  to  give  the 
plant  an  English  name.  I  suggested  the  name  melon 
shrub,  but  through  the  error  or  the  wisdom  of  a  printer 
the  name  was  changed  to  melon  pear,  which  I  confess  is 
not  very  appropriate,  but  still  no  less  so  than  pear 
guava,  alligator  pear,  rose  apple,  strawberry  guava, 
mango  apple,  custard  apple,  etc.  •  •  As  to  the 

value  of  the  fruit  and  the  success  of  it  in  the  states,  only 
time  will  tell.  The  fact  that  I  found  the  plant  growing 
only  on  the  high  land,  where  the  temperature  in  the  shade 
seldom  reaches  75°  Fahr.,  suggested  to  me  the  proba- 
bility that  it  would  fruit  in  a  more  northern  latitude.  In 
California  it  has  proved  a  success  in  the  cooler  parts, 
such  as  in  Los  Angeles  city,  and  in  several  places  in  the 
coast  range,  and  will  undoubtedly  fruit  in  many  other 
localities  where  it  is  not  too  hot.  *  *  *  My  friend, 
the  late  Mr.  J.  Grelck,  of  Los  Angeles,  had  a  plantation 
of  10,000  pepinos,  which  grew  and  bore  well,  and  he  sold 
considerable  fruit.  *  *  *  In  pulp  and  skin  the  pepino 

*Hort.  Kew.  i.  250. 


THE    PEPINO.  151 

resembles  somewhat  the  Bartlett  pear,  but  in  taste  more 
a  muskmelon  ;  but  it  has  besides  a  most  delicious  acid, 
entirely  wanting  in  melons  and  quite  peculiarly  its  own. 
In  warm  localities  this  acid  does  not  develop,  and  this 
fact  is  the  greatest  drawback  to  the  success  of  the  fruit. 
The  fruit  has  no  seed,  as  a  rule.  And  in  all,  I  have 
found  only  a  dozen  seeds,  and  those  in  fruit  which  came 
from  Salama  in  Guatemala,  a  place  rather  too  warm  to 
produce  the  finest  quality  of  fruit.  The  botanical  name 
of  the  pepino  is  not  known  to  me  with  rertainty.  The 
same  was.  described  by  the  Franco-Guatemalan  botanist, 
Mr.  Rousignon,  as  Solatium  Melongena  Guatemalense, 
but  it  is  to  me  quite  evident  that  this  solatium  is  not, 
nor  is  it  closely  related  to  the  S.  Melongena  or  eggplant, 
which  latter  is  a  native  of  Central  Asia.  The  pepino  is 
probably  a  native  of  the  Central  American  highlands,  and 
appears  to  have  been  cultivated  by  the  Indians  before  the 
conquest  by  the  Spaniards."*  Last  year  Mr.  Eisen  writes 
that  "it  lias  only  succeeded  in  Florida,  but  has  there 
proved  of  considerable  value,  "f 

The  greatest  fault  of  the  pepino  appears  to  be  its  fail- 
ure to  set  fruit.  Mr.  Eisen  states  that  in  Guatemala  it 
"yields  abundantly,  in  fact  enormously,  100  to  150  fruits 
to  a  vine  4  feet  in  diameter  being  nothing  uncommon.  I 
have  seen  it  yield  similarly  in  California,  but  whenever 
exposed  to  too  much  heat  and  dryness,  it  is  very  slow  to 
set  fruit."J  He  recommends  that  it  be  shaded  if  it  re- 
fuses to  set  fruit.  Martin  Benson,  Dade  Co.,  Florida, 
writing  to  the  American  Garden,\\  says  that  he  has  had 
great  success  with  it.  "I  counted  the  fruit  on  a  medium- 
sized  plant  and  found  it  bore  60  of  all  sizes,  from  those 
jusi  set  to  some  nearly  matured  and  weighing  upwards  of 

*Gard.  Monthly,  xxix.  84  (1887). 
fGard.  and  Forest,  iii.  471  (1890). 
tOrch.  and  Card.  x.  61  (1888). 
Jix.  265  (1888). 


152  MISCELLANEOUS    COOL    PLANTS. 

a  pound.  The  fruit  varies  considerably,  but  averages 
about  the  size  of  a  goose  egg.  The  fruit  is  the  most 
perfectly  seedless  of  any  I  have  ever  seen,  without  a 
trace  of  a  seed.  It  requires  cool  weather  in  order  to  set 
fruit,  and  never  does  so  excepting  a  norther  or  other  cool 
spell,  when  the  fruit  sets  in  great  quantities."  Mr.  Ben- 
son's letter  is  accompanied  by  an  admirable  illustration  of 
the  fruit.  In  the  northern  states  it  has  always  proved  a 
shy  bearer,  if  I  may  judge  from  such  records  as  exist. 
"D,"  writing  to  the  Gardener's  Monthly,  says  that  he 
had  "only  about  two  pears  to  each  plant,  among  literally 
hundreds  of  blossoms."  Orchard  and  Garden  com- 
ments upon  this  feature  as  follows :  ' '  The  general  ex- 
perience with  it  here  [New  Jersey],  thus  far,  seems  to 
justify  us  in  calling  it  exceedingly  shy  in  setting  fruit,  and 
if  this  tendency  to  abortive  blooming  cannot  be  over- 
come, the  melon  pear  must  be  considered  without  practi- 
cal value."  These  remarks  are  certainly  counter  to  the 
statements  and  pictures  made  by  some  seedsmen  in  re- 
gard to  its  productiveness.  Professor  Munson,  as  we 
have  seen,  has  found  it  to  be  fairly  productive  under 
glass  when  grown  in  a  low  temperature. 


CHAPTER    IX. 


TOMATO. 

NEXT  to  lettuce,  the  tomato  is  probably  the  most  im- 
portant vegetable  grown  in  American  forcing-houses.  Its 
only  close  competitor  for  this  honor  is  the  cucumber. 
Winter  tomatoes  always  find  a  ready  sale  at  prices  rang- 
ing from  25  to  75  cents  per  pound.  Even  after  the  Florida 
tomatoes  come  upon  the  market  in  late  winter,  a  good 
quality  of  house-grown  fruits  continues  to  sell  well  in  every 
good  market.  The  crop  is  one  which  demands  a  high 
temperature,  an  abundance  of  sunlight,  and  great  care  in 
the  growing,  but  the  profits,  under  good  management,  are 
correspondingly  high. 

The  house.  —  A  light  and  tight  house  is  essential,  and  it 
must  be  high  enough  to  allow  of  training  the  plants  (that  is, 
at  least  5  feet  above  the  soil  in  all  parts).  Our  preference 
is  a  sash-bar  frame  house,  something  like  those  shown  in 
Figs.  12  and  13.  A  north-and-south  house  would  be  pref- 
erable, probably,  because  of  the  more  even  distribution  of 
light.  Tomatoes  may  also  be  grown  for  a  late  spring  crop 
in  a  carnation  or  lettuce  house  (see  page  98). 

The  importance  of  direct  and  strong  sunlight  was  well 
illustrated  in  one  of  our  experiments.  At  one  end  of  the 
house  is  a  low  building  which  shaded  a  part  of  the  plants 
after  two  or  three  o'clock.  The  plants  within  3  or  4  feet 
of  this  building,  which  were  thus  deprived  of  direct  sunlight 
for  half  the  afternoon,  bore  no  fruits  whatever,  although 
they  were  strong  and  vigorous.  At  6  and  7  feet  away  some 
(153) 


154  TOMATO. 

fruits  were  borne,  but  it  was  not  until  about  15  or  20  feet 
from  the  building  that  a  full  crop  was  obtained.  The  ill 
effects  of  shade  are  also  visible  upon  the  north  benches  of 
houses  running  east  and  west,  where  the  plants  are  shaded 
somewhat  by  those  in  the  center  of  the  house.  During 
the  middle  of  winter  the  north  bench  in  the  house  will 
ordinarily  produce  no  more  than  half  as  much  fruit,  even 
in  an  unequal-spanned  house,  as  those  in  direct  sunlight. 
The  plants  in  partial  shade  grow  as  well  and  as  large  as 
those  in  full  sun,  and  they  often  blossom  well,  but  the 
fruit  does  not  set. 

The  proper  temperature  for  tomatoes  is  from  60°  to  65° 
at  night,  and  10°  higher  for  dull  days.  On  bright  days 
it  may  be  allowed  to  run  higher,  although  we  always 
wish  to  ventilate  at  75°,  but  a  temperature  of  90°  or  even 
100°  can  do  no  harm.  Until  fruit  begins  to  set,  the  atmos- 
phere should  be  kept  moist,  especially  on  bright  days,  but 
the  setting  of  the  fruit  is  hindered  by  a  humid  atmosphere. 

Soil  and  fertilizers.— Nearly  all  writers  upon  house  cul- 
tivation of  tomatoes  assert  that  the  soil  should  be  only 
moderately  rich,  because  heavily  manured  plants  are  over- 
vigorous  in  growth,  are  generally  unproductive,  and  are 
particularly  liable  to  disease  ;  and  the  additional  cost  of 
training  is  said  to  be  considerable.  Our  experience  em- 
phatically contradicts  this  supposition.  Heavily  manured 
plants  undoubtedly  require  more  care  in  the  pruning,  and 
it  is  possible  that  when  not  properly  handled  they  may  be 
more  liable  to  mildew,  because  of  the  dense  and  crowded 
growth  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  we  always  get  the  best 
yield  from  the  strongest  plants,  and  we  find  the  extra  cost 
of  training  to  be  of  little  account.  We  grow  the  plants  in 
rich  garden  loam,  to  which  is  added  a  fourth  or  fifth  of  its 
bulk  of  well-rotted  manure,  and  when  the  plants  begin  to 
bear,  liquid  manure  is  applied  nearly  every  week,  or  a  top- 
dressing  of  manure  is  given.  To  those  unaccustomed  to 
forcing-house  work  this  may  seem  extravagant  fertilizing ; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  house  cultivation  the 


RAISING    TOMATO    PLANTS. 


155 


roots  are  confined  in  a  small  space,  and  they  have  little 
chance  to  search  for  food.  And  as  a  matter  of  practice, 
we  find  this  heavy  manuring  to  be  essential  to  best  results. 
It  is  strange  that  the  notion  that  tomatoes  require  a  com- 
paratively poor  soil  should  ever  have  become  so  widespread. 
It  has  been  held  also  in  regard  to  outdoor  tomatoes,  but 
our  own  experiments,  and  those  of  others,  have  shown  that 
that  it  is  generally  erroneous  (consult  pages  53  to  61). 

Raising  the  plants,   and  bearing  age. — Tomato  plants 
are  usually  grown  from  seeds,  but  sometimes  from  cuttings. 


49.   Sox 


of  winter  tomatoes. 


Seeds  are  sown  in  flats  or  pots,  and  the  plants  are  handled 
at  least  twice  before  they  go  into  permanent  quarters.  Cut- 
tings are  taken  from  strong,  well-developed  branches,  and 
are  made  of  the  upper  4  or  5  inches  of  the  shoot.  Cutting- 
plants  struck  at  the  same  time  as  seeds  are  sown  will  bear 
sooner  than  seedlings.  Cutting-plants  (if  made  from  well- 


156 


TOMATO. 


matured  shoots)   generally  bear  nearer  the   ground  than 
seedlings.     Fig.  50  shows  cutting-plants  in  bearing. 

In  this  latitude  it  requires  from  four  to  five  months  to 
bring  a  forced  tomato  plant  into  bearing.  A  few  statis- 
tics will  show  the  time  required  from  seed  to  fruit. 
Seeds  which  were  sown  August  9  gave  plants  fit  for 
transplanting  early  in  September.  These  were  planted  in 
permanent  quarters  in  the  tomato  house  October  15,  and 
the  first  fruits  were  obtained  December  28.  Thev  con- 


50.   Cutting-grown  tomato  plants  in  a  shallow  bench. 

tinued  in  bearing  until  near  the  end  of  February,  when 
they  were  trained  for  a  second  crop.  Plants  started  No- 
vember 10  were  transplanted  into  4-inch  pots  December 
8,  and  from  these  pots  into  permanent  quarters  February 
25.  The  first  fruits  were  picked  May  6,  and  May  12  the 
first  market  picking  was  obtained.  On  the  first  of  June 
they  were  in  full  bearing.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  sec- 


WHERE   THE    PLANTS   ARE   TO    BE   GROWN.  157 

ond  lot  grew  much  more  slowly  than  the  first  one.  This 
is  because  the  plants  were  growing  in  the  short  and  dull 
days  of  midwinter.  Market  growers  like  to  sow  seeds  or 
take  cuttings  in  August  for  the  holiday  crop.  The  second 
crop  is  ready  to  go  on  the  benches  early  in  January.  A 
commercial  grower  in  Ontario  informs  me  that  when  he 
sows  seeds  the  middle  of  January  he  expects  to  put  the 
plants  on  the  benches  on  the  first  of  April  and  to  make 
the  first  picking  the  2oth  of  May. 

Beds,  benches  and  boxes. — There  are  various  methods 
of  growing  house  tomatoes.  Much  depends  upon  the 
height  of  house  and  arrangement  of  benches  and  heating 
apparatus.  They  may  be  planted  in  the  ground  or  floor 
of  the  house,  but  this  is  not  advisable,  as  it  does  not  allow 
of  the  application  of  bottom  heat,  and  the  plants  grow 
slowly  ;  and  it  is  frequently  an  advantage  to  shift  the 
plants  somewhat  during  subsequent  treatment.  They  re- 
quire brisk  bottom  heat,  and  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
place  them  upon  benches. 

The  plants  may  be  grown  in  shallow  beds  upon  the 
benches,  or  in  boxes  or  pots.  Many  persons  prefer  to 
grow  tomatoes  in  i8-inch-square  boxes.  Fig.  49  (page  155) 
shows  the  arrangement  of  such  a  tomato  house.  The  re- 
turn pipes  lie  close  upon  the  ground,  and  are  covered  with 
a  low  platform  or  bench,  made  of  3-inch  slats  with  inch 
spaces  between  them.  The  boxes  are  placed  10  inches 
or  a  foot  apart,  and  four  plants  are  set  in  each  of  those 
which  are  18  inches  square  and  a  foot  deep.  A  plant, 
therefore,  occupies  about  i)^  square  feet  of  floor  space. 
We  have  grown  them  in  lo-inch-square  boxes,  and  also 
in  lo-inch  pots,  but  these  dry  out  so  quickly  that  we  do 
not  like  them.  One  or  two  narrow  cracks  are  left  in  the 
bottom.  A  good  layer  of  potsherds  or  clinkers  is  placed 
in  the  bottom  for  drainage,  and  the  box  is  then  filled 
two-thirds  full  of  soil.  When  the  fruit  begins  to  set,  the 
box  is  nearly  filled  with  rich  soil  and  manure.  The  ob- 
ject of  not  filling  the  box  at  first  is  to  confine  the  roots 


TOM  ATO . 


in  a  smaller  space,  and  therefore  to  hasten  fruitfulness  — 
perhaps  an  imaginary  advantage  —  but  more  particularly 
to  allow  of  an  additional  stimulus  to  be  given  the  plant 
at  fruiting  time  by  the  addition  of  fresh  soil. 

On  the  whole,  however,  we  prefer  to  grow  tomatoes 
on  benches,  with  about  7  or  8  inches  of  soil.  Fig.  14 
shows  tomatoes  growing  upon  a  floor  which  lies  directly 
over  the  heater,  a  place  which  gives  most  excellent  re- 
sults. In  this  bed  we  set  the  plants  in  rows  24  inches 
apart,  and  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  This  house  is 


57.   Forcing  house  Jor  tomatoes,  heated  with  water. 

very  light.  In  darker  houses  the  plants  cannot  be  set  so 
close.  Fig.  50  (page  156)  shows  a  bed  3  feet  wide  (and 
only  4  inches  deep)  in  which  but  a  single  row  of  plants  is 
grown.  We  have  grown  an  excellent  crop  of  tomatoes 
on  a  bean  bench,  from  which  three  crops  of  beans  had 
been  taken  during  the  winter.  After  each  crop  of  beans, 
the  soil  was  loosened  up  and  manure  or  manure  water 
added  if  needed.  The  soil  was  again  manured  before 
the  tomatoes  were  set.  The  bed  is  6  inches  deep.  Upon 
this  bed  the  plants  were  set  2  feet  apart  each  way,  and 
each  plant  was  trained  to  two  shoots.  We  sometimes 
carry  a  late  crop  of  tomatoes  upon  benches  which  grow 
peas  and  lettuce  during  the  winter.  Such  houses  are  not 


BENCHES    VS.    BOXES. 


159 


warm  and  light  enough  for  winter  tomatoes,   but  a  crop 
may  be  had  by  late  May  or  June. 

In  comparing  benches  and  boxes,  Munson*  obtained 
the  better  results  from  the  latter.  The  experiments  were 
made  in  a  broken-span  house  (Fig.  51,  page  158)  "  20x50 
feet,  and  about  n  feet  high  at  the  ridge.  The  central 
bed  is  supplied  with  six  2-inch  hot  water  pipes,  the  flow 
being  carried  overhead  to  the  further  end  of  the  house. 
Each  year  a  dozen  or  more  plants  of  each  of  several 
varieties  have  been  grown  in  boxes,  while  duplicate  lots 
have  been  grown  in  open  beds.  These  beds  were  2^  to 
3  feet  wide  and  8  inches  deep.  They  were  built  across 
the  central  bench,  and  thus  received  the  same  bottom 
heat  as  the  boxes."  "  In  almost  every  instance  the  better 
results  were  obtained  from  the  boxes.  With  one  or  two 
exceptions,  the  first  fruits  were  matured  from  one  to  thir- 
teen days  earlier;  the  weight  of  the  crop  was  greater, 
and  the  individual  fruits  averaged  larger.  The  average 
results  for  the  whole  time  may  be  summarized  as  follows  :  " 


Varieties  and  treatment. 

*°  a' 

•_  <4 

of  fruit 
ant—  Ibs. 

e  weight 
ndividual 
—ozs. 

^  a 

S  5 

I? 

;CS 

hi 

fc 

& 

Golden  Queen  — 
Box  

9.8 

1.84 

3.0 

Bed  

90 

2.2 

Ithaca— 

Box  

173 

25 

Bed 

Long  Keeper  — 

Box 

Bed  

8.9 

1.19 

2-3 

Lorillard- 

Box      

n-5 

1-54 

2  3 

Bed  

8-7 

2.O 

*Rept.  of  Maine  Exp.  Sta.  for  1894. 


i6o 


TOMATO. 


A  single-stem  tomato  plant. 


Training.— The  plants 
must  be  trained.  For 
midwinter,  when  it  is 
necessary  to  economize 
sunlight,  I  much  prefer  to 
train  plants  to  a  single 
stem.  Strong  flax  cord, 
the  size  of  wool  twine,  is 
used  for  support.  A 
single  strand  runs  per- 
pendicularly from  each 
plant  to  a  horizontal  wire 
or  rafter  extending  length- 
wise the  house  under  the 
roof.  The  plant  is  se- 
cured loosely  to  this  sup- 
port at  intervals  of  a  foot 
or  so  by  means  of  some 
broad  and  soft  cord,  as 
bass  or  raffia.  Fig.  49 
(page  155)  shows  the 
young  plants  being 
trained,  and  Fig.  52  shows 
a  mature  vine  supported 
by  the  cord.  All  side 
shoots  are  pinched  off  as 
soon  as  they  appear,  and 
the  leader  is  "stopped" 
or  pinched  off  as  soon  as 
it  reaches  the  glass,  or 
sometimes  when  fruits  be- 
gin to  form.  In  houses 
of  sufficient  height,  I  like 
to  train  the  plants  fully  6 
feet  high.  In  midwinter 
it  may  be  necessary  to 
cut  away  some  of  the 


TRAINING    AND   WATERING.  l6l 

older  leaves  or  to  cut  them  in  two  near  the  middle  in 
order  to  let  in  light.  As  the  fruit  sets  the  leaves  near  the 
base  of  the  plant  begin  to  die,  and  they  should  be  picked 
off.  Healthy  plants  in  full  bearing  are  often  bare  of 
leaves  for  the  first  2  feet.  The  fruit  is  borne  on  one  side 
of  the  stem,  and  it  is  a  common  notion  that  the  plants 
must  be  so  placed  that  this  side  of  the  stem  shall  be 
toward  the  sun.  This  precaution  is  entirely  unnecessary. 

When  the  plants  are  set  in  benches,  at  distances  of  2 
or  3  feet,  two  or  three  shoots  may  be  trained  out  upon 
diverging  strings,  in  fan-shaped  fashion.  If  the  fan  stands 
north  and  south  it  will  probably  interfere  least  with  the 
light.  Tomatoes  are  sometimes  trained  along  under  the 
roof  as  rafter  plants,  but  this  system  is  not  adapted  to 
commercial  purposes,  as  it  darkens  the  house  so  much 
that  few  plants  can  be  grown,  and  the  rafter  plants  are 
likely  to  suffer  from  cold. 

As  soon  as  the  fruit  becomes  heavy  the  largest  clusters 
will  need  to  be  held  up.  A  sling  of  raffia  is  caught  over 
a  joint  of  the  plant  and  is  passed  under  the  middle  of  the 
cluster,  as  seen  in  Fig.  52  (at  a,  b,  c,  page  160),  which 
shows  the  bearing  portion  of  a  good  average  plant. 

Upon  very  strong  vines  the  clusters  sometimes 
"break,"  or  push  out  a  shoot  from  the  end.  This  shoot 
should  be  cut  off.  Tomatoes  upon  clusters  where  this 
abnormal  shoot  was  allowed  to  grow  were  generally 
smaller  and  more  irregular  than  upon  clipped  shoots. 

Watering.  —  During  all  the  early  growth  of  the  plant 
the  atmosphere  may  be  kept  moist,  particularly  in  sunny 
days,  when  it  is  customary  to  wet  down  the  walks.  Care 
must  be  taken  in  watering.  It  is  best  to  soak  the  soil 
pretty  thoroughly  at  each  watering,  yet  it  should  not  be 
drenched.  Careless  watering  usually  leaves  the  surface 
wet,  while  the  under  soil  remains  dry.  This  must  be 
avoided.  In  midwinter  we  water  our  plants  thoroughly 
about  twice  a  week,  giving  no  water  directly  to  them  be- 
tween times.  If  the  red  spider  should  attack  the  plants, 


l62  TOMATO. 

the  atmosphere  must  be  kept  moist,  and  in  bad  attacks 
the  foliage  should  be  syringed.  Every  care  should  be 
taken  to  keep  the  plants  free  from  the  spider,  for  the  pest 
cannot  well  be  overcome  after  the  fruit  begins  to  set,  at 
which  time  the  house  should  be  kept  dry.  If  fungi  begin 
to  attack  the  plants,  however,  the  atmosphere  will  need  to 
be  kept  drier. 

Pollination.  — When  the  flowers  begin  to  appear,  the 
atmosphere  must  be  kept  dry  during  the  brighter  part  of 
the  day  in  order  to  facilitate  pollination.  The  pollen  is 
discharged  most  profusely  in  dry,  sunny  days.  In  the 
short,  dull  days  of  midwinter,  some  artificial  aid  must  be 
given  the  flowers  to  enable  them  to  set.  The  common 
practice  is  to  tap  the  plants  sharply  several  times  during 
the  middle  of  the  day  with  a  padded  stick.  This  practice 
is  perhaps  better  than  nothing,  although  tests  which  we 
once  made  upon  the  value  of  this  operation  as  compared 
with  no  attention  were  entirely  indifferent  in  results. 
During  the  past  winter  (1895-6)  we  tested  the  value  of 
this  jarring  with  the  transfer  of  pollen  by  hand,  and  ob- 
tained more  fruits  from  the  jarring  method,  but  their  total 
weight  was  much  less.  I  am  strongly  of  the  opinion  that 
it  will  pay  the  commercial  grower  to  transfer  the  pollen 
by  hand  during  midwinter.  At  this  season  the  flowers 
are  most  likely  to  fail  and  the  product  is  the  most  valu- 
able ;  and  the  tests  which  I  am  about  to  report  concerning 
the  influences  of  different  quantities  of  pollen  strengthen 
this  advice.  There  are  various  methods  of  pollinating  the 
flowers.  The  most  expeditious  and  satisfactory  method 
which  I  know  is  to  knock  the  pollen  from  the  flowers, 

catching 

in      a 
spoo  n, 

53.  Ladle  for  pollinating  house  tomatoes.  wa  tc  h- 

glass,  or 

other  receptacle,  and  then  dipping  the  stigmas  of  the 
same  or  other  flowers  into  it.  A  good  implement  is 


POLLINATION    OF    TOMATOES.  163 

shown  in  Fig.  53  (page  162).  This  is  made  by  glueing  a 
small  watch-glass  to  the  end  of  a  wooden  ladle.  There  is 
a  time  in  the  life  of  the  flower  when  the  pollen  falls  out 
readily  if  the  atmosphere  is  dry  enough  to  hold  dust. 
This  is  when  the  flower  is  fully  expanded  and  somewhat 
past  its  prime.  The  flower  is  tapped  lightly  with  a  lead 
pencil  and  the  light  yellow  powder  falls  out  freely.  The 
house  must  be  dry  and  warm  at  the  time.  C.  J.  Pen- 
nock,  Kennett  Square,  Penn.,  a  grower  of  winter  to- 
matoes for  market,  writes  me  as  follows  concerning  the 
pollination  of  the  flowers:  "During  the  short  days  of 
winter  I  pollinate  carefully  every  day,  and  I  consider  the 
operation  necessary.  I  use  a  tool  of  my  own  make.  It 
is  a  light  piece  of  wood  about  16  in.  long  and  one-half 
in.  square,  one  end  of  which  has  a  slight  saucer-like  de- 
pression. This  stick  is  held  in  the  left  hand  with  the  de- 
pression under  the  blossom  to  be  pollinated.  Another 
light  stick  or  reed  is  used  to  tap  the  blossom  and  shake 
out  the  pollen,  the  end  of  the  pistil  being  pressed  into 
the  accumulated  pollen  in  the  depression  at  the  same 
time.  On  a  sunny  day,  when  the  house  is  dry,  the  opera- 
tion can  be  performed  rapidly.  I  have  tried  jarring  the 
plants  and  have  seen  a  brush  used,  but  do  not  consider 
either  as  good  as  the  above  method."  In  the  brighter 
days  of  March  and  later  I  have  found  no  other  attention 
necessary  than  keeping  the  -house  dry  at  midday. 

But  there  appears  to  be  further  reason  why  hand  pol- 
lination is  profitable.  In  my  earliest 
experiences  in  tomato  forcing  I  was 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  indoor 
tomatoes  are  smaller  than  those  grown 
out  of  doors,  and  the  midwinter  fruits 
are  usually  smaller  than  those  pro- 
duced under  the  same  circumstances 
in  late  spring..  There  is  also  a  S4.  One-sided  tomato. 
marked  tendency  in  house  tomatoes  to  be  one-sided,  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  54.  It  was  a  long  time  before  any 

12   FORC. 


164  TOMATO. 

reason  for  these  facts  suggested  itself.  I  finally  came  to 
feel  that  this  irregularity  and  perhaps  the  smallness  were 
often  due  to  irregular  or  insufficient  pollination,  although 
it  is  probably  true  that  lack  of  sunlight  has  something  to 
do  with  the  inferior  size.  The  first  definite  aid  towards  the 
solution  of  the  problem  was  the  result  of  an  experiment 
performed  by  my  former  assistant,  W.  M.  Munson.*  Mr. 
Munson  pollinated  two  fruits  upon  the  same  cluster  with 
pollen  from  one  source,  but  in  one  flower  very  little  pol- 
len was  used,  and  it  was  applied  upon  one  side  of  the 


55.   The  effects  of  much  and  little  pollen. 

stigma  only,  while  the  other  flower  received  an  abun- 
dance of  pollen  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  stigma.  The 
result  is  shown  in  Figs.  55  to  57  (pages  164  and  165).  In 
Fig.  55,  the  large  fruit  received  the  more  pollen,  and  it  is 
fully  four  times  as  large  as  the  other,  which  received  a 
very  small  amount.  Moreover,  the  large  fruit  was  practi- 
cally symmetrical,  while  the  small  one  was  one-sided. 
Figs.  56  and  57  (page  165)  show  cross  sections  of  these 

*A  report  of  fuller  studies  in  this  direction  by  Professor  Munson 
may  be  found  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Maine  Experiment  Station 
for  1892,  Part  ii. 


EFFECTS    OF    POLLINATION. 


165 


fruits.  The  larger  fruit  (Fig.  56)  has  all  the  cells  de- 
veloped and  seed-bearing,  while  the  smaller  one  (Fig.  57) 
has  seeds  upon  one  side 
only,  and  the  other  or  un- 
fertilized side  is  seedless 
and  nearly  solid.  The 
original  central  division  of  I 
this  fruit  is  shown  at  A  B. 
This  experiment  has  been 
repeated  several  times  with 
substantially  the  same  re- 
sults. The  flowers,  of 
course,  were  emasculated 
in  the  bud,  and  were  se- 
curely covered  with  bags  56.  Effects  of  liberal  supply  of 
to  prevent  any  interference.  pollen. 

Four  important  lessons  are  to  be  drawn  from  these 
experiments :  i.  One-sidedness  appears  to  be  due  to  a 
greater  development  of  seeds  upon  the  large  side.* 
2.  This  development  of  seeds  is  apparently  due  to  the 
application  of  the  greater  part  of  the  pollen  to  that  side. 
3.  An  abundance  of  pollen  applied 
over  the  entire  stigmatic  surface,  by 
increasing  the  number  of  seeds  in- 
creases the  size  of  the  fruit.  4.  The 
pollen,  either  directly  or  indirectly, 
probably  stimulates  the  growth  of 
the  fruit  beyond  the  mere  influence 
of  the  number  of  seeds ;  the  growth 

57.   Effects  of  scanty      °f   the   Solid   Part   in    FiS'    57   appears 

supply  of  pollen.  to  indicate  this.  This  secondary  in- 
fluence of  the  pollen  in  increasing  the  size  of  fruits,  both 
by  means  of  increasing  the  number  of  seeds — which  nec- 
essarily demand  a  larger  envelope  or  receptacle  —  and 

*For  similar  results  in  the  pollination  of  apples,  see  Bull.  31,  Mich. 
Agr.  Coll.  91  (1887). 


166  TOMATO. 

by  some  stimulating  influence  which  it  may  have  upon 
the  pericarp  itself,  is  well  known  as  a  scientific  fact.  If 
I  have  interpreted  these  experiments  correctly,  they  mean 
that  a  part,  at  least,  of  the  smallness  and  perhaps  all  of 
the  one-sidedness  of  house  tomatoes  are  due  to  insuffi- 
cient pollination,  and  that  it  will  pay  the  grower  in  mid- 
winter to  pollinate  by  hand  and  to  exercise  pains  to  ap- 
ply an  abundance  of  pollen  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
stigma.  This  conclusion  is  further  emphasized  by  the  ex- 
periment which  I  have  already  reported  (page  162),  in 
which  the  fruits  upon  jarred  plants  (and  which  undoubt- 
edly received  comparatively  little  pollen)  were  smaller 
than  those  which  were  hand-pollinated.  It  is  possible 
that  the  same  principle  can  be  applied  to  some  other 
fruits,  and  our  experiments  with  other  plants  in  this  di- 
rection have  already  been  considerable. 

The  development  of  the  hard  and  seedless  part  of  the 
small  tomato  (Fig.  57)  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting 
feature  of  the  experiment  from  a  scientific  point  of  view. 
This  part  must  have  developed  because  of  some  entirely 
secondary  stimulus  of  the  pollen  upon  the  pericarp,  or 
else  because  of  the  stimulus  afforded  by  the  growth  of 
the  seeds  in  the  other  half;  if  neither  of  these  proposi- 
tions is  true,  it  must  follow  that  seedless  tomato  fruits 
may  develop  without  any  aid  of  pollination  whatever. 
In  any  case,  the  query  is  raised  if  it  will  ever  be  possi- 
ble to  grow  perfectly  seedless  tomatoes.  We  have  al- 
ready grown  them,  but  can  make  no  definite  report 
upon  the  subject. 

Second  crop.  —  The  crop  from  the  one  or  two  or  three 
trained  shoots  of  house  tomatoes  does  not  exhaust  the 
vitality  of  the  plant ;  consequently  when  the  crop  is  well 
along,  one  or  two  new  shoots  may  be  trained  out  from 
near  the  base  of  the  plant  to  produce  a  second  crop.  If 
the  plant  is  carrying  a  load  of  fruit  when  these  second 
shoots  are  being  trained,  liquid  manure  should  be  given 
once  or  twice  a  week,  or  a  fresh  mulch  of  old  manure 


THE    SECOND   CROP.  167 

may  be  added.  In  the  dark  days  of  midwinter  there  may 
not  be  enough  light  to  make  these  new  shoots  strong  in 
such  close  planting  as  we  practice,  and  it  is  better,  there- 
fore, to  delay  starting  them  until  the  fruit  from  the  first 
crop  is  nearly  all  full  grown.  But  in  late  February  and 
March  the  new  shoots  may  be  allowed  to  become  3 
or  4  feet  long  before  the  old  shoots  are  cut  down.  Of 
course,  much  will  depend  upon  the  distance  at  which  the 
plants  are  set,  the  lightness  of  the  house,  and  the  fertility 
of  the  soil.  Shoots  which  were  about  a  foot  long  when 
the  old  tops  were  cut  down  the  first  of  March  gave  ripe 
fruits  the  first  and  second  weeks  in  May.  We  have 
noticed  that  strong  and  stocky  shoots  from  6  inches  to 
a  foot  long  give  fruits  about  as  early  as  weak  and  slen- 
der shoots  3  and  4  feet  long,  and  they  make  better 
plants.  With  judicious  treatment,  the  second  crop  can 
be  made  to  follow  the  first  with  an  interval  of  four  to  six 
weeks  only,  although  this  is  difficult  with  the  close  plant- 
ing which  we  have  employed.  One  shoot  may  be  trained 
out  from  each  plant  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  top,  or 
two  shoots  may  be  allowed  to  grow  and  some  of  the  old 
plants  cut  out  entirely.  The  advantages  of  either  prac- 
tice are  about  equal  in  the  box  system  of  growing.  Mr. 
Pennock  trains  his  plants  to  a  single  stem  for  winter 
bearing.  For  later  fruiting,  he  trains  out  two  or  three 
shoots  from  each  plant.  But  Mr.  Pennock  grows  his 
plants  in  beds  or  benches  and  sets  them  2x2^  feet. 
In  any  case,  each  of  the  second  shoots  should  bear  as 
much  as  the  first  one  did,  and  usually  more,  because  of 
the  greater  amount  of  sunlight  later  in  the  season.  The 
old  top  is  cut  off  an  inch  or  so  above  the  junction  of  the 
new  shoot. 

Another  method  of  obtaining  the  second  crop  is  to 
bury  the  old  plants.  As  soon  as  the  fruit  is  off,  the  soil 
is  removed  between  the  plants,  and  the  stems,  deprived 
of  lower  leaves,  are  coiled  down  into  the  hole  until  only 
a  foot  or  so  of  the  tip  projects.  The  earth  is  then  filled 


168  TOMATO. 

in  over  the  plants,  and  the  tip  grows  the  same  as  a 
young  plant.  We  have  not  found  this  method  quite  so 
satisfactory  as  the  training  out  of  new  shoots.  The  yield 
has  not  been  quite  so  heavy  as  from  single  second  shoots, 
although  fruits  were  obtained  fully  as  early  as  from  shoots 
which  were  a  foot  long  when  the  test  was  started.  But 
it  is  a  somewhat  laborious  operation,  and  some  of  the 
stiffer  plants  are  apt  to  be  cracked  in  the  handling ;  and 
in  box  culture  it  is  necessary  to  pull  out  one  or  two  of 
the  four  plants  in  order  to  make  room  for  the  operation. 
A  third  way  of  obtaining  the  second  crop  is  by  means 
of  new  seedling  plants.  This  is  the  common  method. 
Plants  are  started  from  seeds  two  or  three  months  be- 
forehand, and  are  transplanted  two  or  three  times  into 
pots.  At  the  final  shifting  they  are  taken  from  4-  or  5- 
inch  pots  and  placed  in  permanent  quarters.  At  this 
time  they  should  be  from  18  inches  to  2  feet  high,  or 
ready  for  the  first  tying  up.  We  find  that  seedlings  will 
bear  about  the  same  time  and  to  the  same  extent  as 
sprouts  which  are  of  equal  length  to  begin  with.  The 
preference  would  seem  to  be,  therefore,  for  sprouts,  as  they 
avoid  the  previous  labor  of  sowing  and  handling ;  and 
the  seedlings  take  up  valuable  room  while  growing.  But 
accidents  are  likely  to  occur  to  the  old  plants  ;  and  an  ad- 
vantage which  seedling  plants  have  over  sprouts  lies  in 
the  complete  change  of  soil  which  is  possible  when  seed- 
lings are  grown. 

An  experiment  made  (in  boxes)  at  Cornell  (in  mid- 
winter) upon  the  comparative  merits  of  seedling,  buried 
and  sprout-made  plants  (one  sprout  being  allowed  to  grow 
from  the  stump  of  the  old  plant)  gave  the  following  data  : 

Average  yield  from  seedlings 9     fruits  per  plant. 

"     buried  plants 7 

"      sprouts 9.2 

Highest  production  in  seedlings 13.5 

"  buried  plants  .   .   .   .  11.5 

"  sprouts 13.5 

This  test  showed  that  the  seedlings  and  sprout-made 


YIELDS    OF   TOMATOES.  169 

plants  were  of  equal  value,  but  the  buried  plants  were 
distinctly  inferior.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that  such 
tests  are  of  comparatively  little  value,  because  the  merits 
of  the  buried  and  sprout-made  plants  depend  very  much 
upon  the  vigor  and  healthfulness  of  the  parent  plants. 
As  a  result  of  several  years'  experience,  we  now  habit- 
ually grow  our  tomato  plants  from  seeds. 

Yields  and  prices.  —  It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing 
discussion  that  any  statement  of  the  yield  per  plant  of 
house  tomatoes  must  be  utterly  valueless  unless  the 
method  of  training  is  given.  The  yield  from  two- 
stemmed  plants  may  be  twice  as  great  as  that  from 
single-stem  training,  and  the  yield  from  double  cropping 
of  one  plant  will  be  from  two  to  four  times  as  much  as 
from  a  single  crop  ;  and  much  will  depend  upon  the  time 
of  year.  Some  of  the  reports  which  have  been  made  of 
enormous  yields  must  be  untrue.  The  true  way  to  esti- 
mate yield  is  by  the  amount  of  floor  space  covered. 

In  our  experience  we  obtain  from  \%  Ibs.  to  2  Ibs. 
per  stem  (or  plant)  in  midwinter,  and  about  twice  to  three 
times  as  much  in  spring,  or  an  average  of  3  Ibs.  or  more 
for  the  season.  This  amount  is  produced  on  i^  to  2  sq. 
ft.  of  soil.  Mr.  Pennock  obtains  from  8  Ibs.  to  10  Ibs. 
to  the  plant  for  the  season,  but  his  plants  cover  5  sq.  ft. 
The  practical  results  of  the  two  systems  are  therefore 
about  the  same  —  about  2  pounds  to  the  square  foot;* 
but  the  uniform  single-stem  system  has  some  advantages 
in  ease  of  manipulation,  and  the  plants  are  so  numerous 
that  the  loss  of  one  by  any  accident  is  not  so  serious  as  in 
the  other  case.  It  should  be  said  that  the  reported  yields 
of  house  tomatoes  are  usually  made  from  the  spring  crop, 
not  from  the  winter  crop.  A  winter  crop,  to  be  profit- 
able, should  average  at  least  2  Ibs.  to  the  plant,  in  close 
planting  and  single-stem  training,  and  a  spring  crop 

*  This  is  over  three  times  the  yield  per  square  foot  in  field  culture 
in  thus  latitude. 


IJO  TOMATO. 

should  average  4  Ibs.  to  the  plant.  In  a  good  crop  of 
tomatoes,  the  fruits  should  average  about  three  to  a 
cluster  in  winter,  and  about  four  or  five  in  spring.  Fig. 
58  (page  171)  shows  a  good  cluster  of  forced  tomatoes. 

We  have  made  experiments  to  determine  if  the  second 
crop  from  the  plant  is  influenced  by  the  amount  of  the 
first  crop.  The  tests  were  made  with  both  buried  and 
sprout  plants.  For  one  series  we  used  the  plants  which 
bore  the  heaviest  midwinter  crop,  and  for  the  other  those 
which  stood  in  partial  shade  and  had  borne  nothing. 
The  results  show  that  the  first  crop  did  not  influence  the 
bearing  capacity  of  the  second  stage  so  long  as  the  parent 
plants  remained  healthy.  And  they  also  show  that 
amount  of  crop  is  not  a  fixed  trait  of  the  individual 
plant;  /.  c. ,  a  plant  which  bears  little  at  first  may  bear 
heavily  the  second  time,  and  vice  versa. 

The  actual  figures  of  yields  and  prices  of  commercial 
growers  of  forced  tomatoes  will  be  helpful.  In  a  certain 
crop  of  Lorillard  tomatoes,  673  plants,  the  total  pickings 
were  as  follows  : 

For  March 15  Ibs. 

"    April 783    " 

"     May 862    " 

"     June 905    " 

"    July 338    " 

2,933  " 

This  is  an  average  of  4.3  Ibs.  per  plant.  This  is  a 
large  average  yield.  In  midwinter,  the  crop  could  not  be 
expected  to  be  much  more  than  half  this  amount.  These 
plants  were  trained  to  a  single  stem. 

Following  are  extracts  from  the  letters  of  four 
growers  : 

"We  set  our  plants  about  2x  2l/2  ft.  One  house,  112  ft. 
long  by  23  ft.  wide,  had  8  rows  of  plants  and  about  54 
per  row,  and  yielded  over  4,000  Ibs.  of  fruit  from  De- 
cember 20  to  July  i.  My  recollection  is  that  you  grew 
much  closer  together  and  had  about  the  same  yield  per 


A    TOMATO    CLUSTER. 


171 


A  cluster  of  forced  Lorillard  tomato,  two-thirds  natural  size. 


1J2  TOMATO. 

sq.  ft.,  and  thought  it  a  safer  plan,  as  a  dead  plant  meant 
less  loss.  My  judgment  would  be  that  your  plan  would 
require  much  more  labor  in  setting  and  caring  for  the 
plants,  and  in  practice  we  rarely  lost  a  plant.  When  I 
commenced  forcing  tomatoes  I  found  that  the  price  was 
extremely  low  until  the  last  of  December,  but  now  the 
price  is  good  in  November.  Prices  have  varied  in  the 
past  two  years  from  7  cts.  to  50  cts.  per  Ib.  An  aver- 
age price  during  December,  January,  February  and 
March  has  been  about  30  cts.  to  35  cts.,  I  think." 

"  We  plant  our  benches  with  tomatoes  from  3-in.  pots 
along  in  January  and  February  as  carnation  stock  is 
ready,  growing  them  along  at  carnation  temperature  until 
we  have  taken  off  the  last  crop  of  carnation  cuttings  ; 
then  we  give  a  little  more  heat,  and  have  a  crop  of  to- 
matoes about  the  last  of  May,  through  June,  and  have 
them  all  off  early  in  July.  We  have  generally  had  an 
average  of  6  to  6)4  Ibs.  per  plant.  There  is  much  varia- 
tion in  average  price,  according  to  time  we  get  the  main 
crop  on,  from,  I  suppose,  10  cts.  to  15  cts.  per  Ib." 

"Our  experience  with  tomatoes  extends  only  with  one 
house  and  for  one  season.  They  were  in  for  six  months 
and  one  week.  We  sold  2,669  Ibs.  ;  gross  receipts, 
$598.72,  or  an  average  of  22^  cts.  per  Ib.  ;  variety, 
Lorillard  ;  house,  100x20  ft." 

"We  grow  tomatoes  only  as  a  second  crop  in  spring, 
bringing  them  in  about  the  first  of  May  and  continuing 
through  June.  From  two  houses  (20x115  ft-  ar>d 
20x100  ft.)  we  picked  3,500  Ibs.  of  fruit,  which  brought 
an  average  price  of  12  cents  per  pound." 

Varieties.  — We  have  forced  Dwarf  Champion,  Loril- 
lard, Ignotum,  Ithaca,  Golden  Queen,  Golden  Sunrise, 
Volunteer,  Beauty,  Potato  Leaf,  and  others.  Of  these, 
the  Dwarf  Champion  is  least  satisfactory.  It  does  not 
grow  high  or  free  enough  to  allow  of  convenient  train- 
ing, and  the  fruit  is  small  and  ripens  slowly.  Among 


VARIETIES   OF   TOMATOES.  173 

the  others  there  is  little  choice.  Perhaps  the  Ithaca  is 
the  least  desirable  of  the  remaining  ones,  because  of  its 
irregularity.  But  I  cannot  look  upon  the  irregularity  of 
house  tomatoes  as  wholly  a  varietal  character.  All  to- 
matoes, apparently,  tend  to  be  more  irregular  indoors 
than  out,  a  tendency  for  which  I  can  not  yet  give  any 
sufficient  reason.  The  form  seems  to  vary  somewhat  in 
the  same  variety  at  different  times,  and  it  is  probably 
closely  associated  with  the  moisture  of  the  soil  and  the 
incidental  treatment  of  the  plants.  The  Ignotum  seemed 
to  be  somewhat  more  irregular  in  the  house  the  first 
winter  than  the  second.  Lorillard  and  Ignotum  seem 
to  hold  the  first  place  among  the  varieties  which  we  have 
tried,  although  Volunteer  is  scarcely  inferior.  The  Golden 
Queen  is  perhaps  the  best  yellow.  Yellow  tomatoes  are 
in  little  demand,  but  a  few  plants  may  prove  profitable 
from  which  to  sell  fruits  to  those  who  desire  to  make 
table  decorations.  If  we  could  have  but  one  variety,  we 
would  choose  the  Lorillard. 

Munson  makes  the  following  comments  upon  varie- 
ties :  *  "  Some  varieties  seem  specially  adapted  for  cul- 
ture under  glass,  while  others  fail  to  give  satisfactory  re- 
sults. Why  this  is  so  we  do  not  know;  but  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  most  promising,  we  have  grown 
several  of  the  best  known  varieties  for  several  seasons. 
Naturally,  as  the  days  grow  longer  in  April  and  May  the 
fruit  will  be  of  larger  size  and  the  product  per  plant  will 
be  greater  than  is  the  case  with  the  first  crop  —  in  Jan- 
uary and  February.  The  figures  given  below  represent 
the  average  results  obtained,  including  both  crops,  for 
several  seasons.  Several  other  varieties  —  including  Ig- 
notum, Perfection,  Peach,  Prelude,  Dwarf  Champion,  etc. 
— have  been  grown,  but  those  named  in  the  table  have 
proved  most  satisfactory : 

*  Kept.  Maine  Exp.  Sta.  for  1894. 


174 


TOMATO. 


Average 
Variety.                             ^J^ 
plant! 

Average 
weight  of 
product  — 
Ihs. 

Average 
weight  of 
individual 
fruits  — 
ozs. 

Chemin  Market  .   .          12 
Golden  Queen    12 
Ithaca        ii 

2.29 

2.22 
1.69 

I  86 

3-0 

3-8 
2-5 

Lorillard    13 
Optimus    !          13 

2.05 
1.96 

2-7 

2.5 

"The  ideal  tomato  for  forcing  should  be  of  medium 
size  —  about  2j4  ounces  preferred  —  and  should  be  uni- 
form, smooth,  regular,  and  of  firm  texture.  All  things 
considered,  Lorillard  answers  these  requirements  more 
completely  than  any  other  sort  we  have  grown  ;  though 
Optimus  has  usually  done  well.  Chemin  Market  is  very- 
attractive  in  appearance,  and  is  of  good  size,  but  it 
lacks  solidity. 

"No  collection  is  complete  without  a  few  plants  of 
Golden  Queen.  This  is  especially  valuable  for  the 
pleasing  contrast  when  served  with  the  red  or  purple 
fruits. 

"There  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  adaptability  of 
varieties  for  house  culture,  among  the  best  of  those  tried 
being  Lorillard,  Optimus,  Chemin,  Golden  Queen,  Ithaca 
and  Long  Keeper. 

"All  things  considered,  the  Lorillard  has  proved  the 
most  satisfactory  tomato  for  forcing." 

Marketing.  —  The  tomatoes  are  usually  marketed  in 
small  splint  baskets  holding  from  4  to  10  pounds  of 
fruit.  Each  fruit  is  wrapped  in  tissue  paper,  and  if  to 
be  shipped  by  rail,  the  baskets  should  be  lined  with 
rolled  cotton.  In  midwinter  an  average  price  of  40  cents 
a  pound  should  be  remunerative  ;  in  spring  and  fall  25 
cents  a  pound  should  pay.  In  midwinter  our  fruits  aver- 
age from  2  ozs.  to  2^  ozs.  each,  but  in  late  March  and 


THE  MARKETING  OF  TOMATOES.  175 

April  the  average  will  rise  to  3  ounces  and  more. 
In  May,  well  pollinated  fruits  often  weigh  7  or  8  ounces. 
The  weight  of  the  best  fruits  is  often  increased  by  cut- 
ting off  the  smallest  and  most  irregular  ones.  The  larg- 
est forced  tomato  which  I  have  ever  seen  was  grown 
by  John  Kerman,  Grimsby,  Ontario.  It  weighed  24^ 
ounces.  It  was  an  Ignotum,  and  was  picked  in  June. 
Mr.  Kerman  reports*  another  fruit  of  the  same  crop 
which  weighed  27^  ounces. 

A  grower  of  house  tomatoes  gives  me  a  description 
of  his  method  of  marketing:  "In  shipping  I  use  small 
packages.  The  flat-bottomed  splint  basket,  holding  about 
8  qts.,  with  handle,  is  excellent,  and  can  be  bought  for 
$6  or  less  per  gross.  They  hold  10  Ibs.  each.  In 
packing,  line  the  basket  with  at  least  two  thicknesses  of 
medium-weight  wrapping  paper,  turning  down  the  cor- 
ners even  with  the  top  of  the  basket,  or  have  it  cut  to 
exactly  fit.  Newspapers  can  be  used,  but  are  not  so 
neat.  Two  inches  of  excelsior  shavings  is  placed  in  the 
basket  after  being  lined  with  the  paper.  The  tomatoes 
are  wrapped  singly  in  tissue  paper,  cut  by  manufacturers 
in  convenient  sizes,  two  sizes  being  sufficient.  Two  lay- 
ers of  tomatoes  are  packed  in  each  basket,  with  a  layer 
of  excelsior  between  each  layer  and  on  top  of  the  upper 
layer.  I  have  found  these  baskets  to  hold  just  10  Ibs. 
of  tomatoes  without  undue  crowding  or  rubbing  the  side 
of  the  basket.  The  grower's  name  and  net  weight  of 
tomatoes  should  be  placed,  by  means  of  a  neat  label, 
inside  of  the  basket,  and  the  basket  wrapped  in  paper, 
all  tied  securely  and  neatly,  with  label  on  outside  for 
shipping  direction,  to  include  consignor's  name,  and 
grade  and  weight  of  package.  The  tomatoes  should  be 
sorted  into  at  least  three  grades  —  firsts  or  choice,  sec- 
onds, and  culls." 

Animal    parasites. — A   white    scale   (Aleyrodes    vapor- 

"Canadian  Horticulturist,  xix.  260  (August,  1896.) 


176  TOMATO. 

arioruni)  is  a  common  pest  here  on  tomatoes.  The  im- 
perfect insect  is  a  small  white  scale-like  body,  preying 
upon  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  and  the  mature 
form  is  a  minute  fly-like  insect  which  flies  about  the 
house.  It  can  be  kept  in  check  by  fumigating  with  to- 
bacco smoke. 

A  much  more  serious  pest  is  a  small  spotted  mite, 
scarcely  larger  than  the  red  spider  (  Tetranychus  bimacu- 
latus,  of  Harvey).  The  mites  feed  upon  the  under  sides 
of  the  leaves,  causing  the  upper  surfaces  to  appear 
speckled  with  white,  as  shown  in  Fig.  59.  They  attack 

many  plants,  but  to- 
matoes and  cucum- 
bers  are  favorites. 
We  have  tried  num- 
bers of  remedies  with 
great  thoroughness, 
but  the  first  way  we 
discovered  of  keep- 
ing them  in  check 

59.    Work  of  the  mite.  WaS    tO     S>'rinSe     with 

water    so     forcibly 

once  or  twice  a  day  as  to  knock  them  off.  By  the  time 
they  were  fairly  resettled  on  the  plants  we  would  knock 
them  off  again.  By  this  alternating  warfare,  aided  by 
picking  and  burning  the  worst  leaves,  we  kept  our  plants 
in  tolerable  order.  Later,  however,  we  have  found  that 
Hughes'  fir-tree  oil  is  fatal  to  them,  as  also  to  all  kinds 
of  lice  and  scales.  For  the  mites,  we  use  a  half  pint  of 
oil  to  two  gallons  of  water,  and  the  material  may  be  ap- 
plied with  a  syringe  or  knapsack  pump.  In  more  recent 
experience,  we  have  not  had  so  good  success  with  this 
oil.  We  now  keep  them  in  check  by  exercising  every 
care  to  have  the  house  free  of  the  pests  before  setting 
in  the  plants,  and  by  spraying  the  leaves  (particularly 
beneath)  with  a  fine  nozzle  every  bright  morning.  If 
the  mites  once  get  a  thorough  foothold  upon  a  plant 


DISEASES    OF    HOUSE   TOMATOES. 


177 


it    is    almost    impossible   to   thoroughly   eradicate   them. 

The  root-gall,  caused  by  a  nematode  worm  (Hetero- 
dera  radicicola),  often  does  great  damage  in  tomato 
houses  (Fig.  29,  page  87).  The  treatment  is  to  use  only 
soil  which  has  been  thoroughly  frozen,  as  explained  on 
page  85.  After  cleaning  the  benches  of  infected  soil,  it  is 
well  to  wash  them  in  strong  lye.* 

Diseases.— We  have  had  serious  difficulty  with  dis- 
eases. The  rot  of  the  fruit  has  been  one  of  the  worst, 
and  this  has  appeared  chiefly  upon  the  first  fruits.  This 
disease  appears  to  originate  as  a  physiological  trouble  (not 
from  the  attacks  of  fungi,  as  commonly  supposed),  and  the 
proper  treatment  is  to  keep  the  house  dry  and  sweet. 

The  t  o- 
mato  blight 
or  rust  ( Clar 
dos  poriu m 
fulvum)  i  s 
frequent  i  n 
tomato 
houses,  par- 
ticularly to- 
wards 
spring.  Fig. 
60  shows  the 
patches  o  f 

the  fungus  at  the  points  marked  a.  It  causes  rusty  patches 
upon  the  leaf,  and  the  foliage  soon  shrivels  and  dies.  It 
is  very  likely  that  the  disease  may  be  brought  into  the 
house  in  soil  upon  which  diseased  plants  have  been 
grown.  If  it  appears,  the  plants  should  be  thoroughly 
sprayed  at  once  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

The  dropsy  or  oedema  of  the  tomato  is  a  physiologi- 
cal disease  produced  in  house  tomatoes  by  a  too  succu- 

*  For  a  fuller  account  of  the  root-gall  on  house  tomatoes,  see  Bulle- 
tin 43,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  (Sept.  1892). 


60.  Tomato  blight  (Cladosporium  fulvum). 


178  TOMATO. 

lent  growth  consequent  upon  a  dark  house,  over-watering, 
and  unskillful  attention  to  ventilation.  Outgrowths  or 
swellings  closely  resembling  fungous  infections  appear 
upon  the  leaves  and  stems,  and  the  leaves  finally  curl 
up  (Fig.  61).  This  trouble  has  been  made  the  subject  of 
a  special  study  by  Atkinson,*  whose  "summary  for 
practical  purposes"  is  as  follows: 

"The  oedema  of  the  tomato  is   a  swelling  of  certain 


61.  (Edema  of  the  tomato. 

parts  of  the  plant  brought  about  by  an  excess  of  water 
which  stretches  the  cell  walls,  making  them  very  thin  and 
the  cells  very  large.  The  excess  of  water  may  be  so 
great  that  the  cell  walls  break  down,  and  that  part  of  the 
plant  dying,  exerts  an  injurious  influence  in  adjacent  parts. 

"The  excess  of  water  in  the  tissues  is  favored  by  the 
following  conditions  : 

"  i.  Insufficient  light.  The  long  nights  of  the  early 
winter  months,  numerous  cloudy  days,  and  in  part,  the 
walls  and  framing  of  the  forcing-house,  deprive  the  plants 

*Bullttin  53,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  (May,  1893). 


DROPSY    OF    TOMATO. 


179 


of  needed  light.  By  a  process  known  as  transpiration, 
plants  are  relieved  of  much  water  when  well  lighted, 
but  in  poor  light,  since  the  roots  are  absorbing  water,  it 
is  apt  to  accumulate  to  excess.  Well  lighted  parts  of  the 
house,  then,  should  be  selected  for  the  tomatoes. 

"  2.  Too  much  water  in  the  soil.  Water  in  excess  can 
be  withheld  from  the  soil  and  prevent  the  trouble,  and  yet 
provide  enough  for  the  plants  to  grow. 

"3.  .The  temperature  of  the  soil  may  be  too  near  that 
of  the  air.  A  high  temperature  of  the  soil  makes  the 
roots  active,  and  if  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  not  con- 
siderably higher  an  excess  of  water  is  apt  to  accumulate 
in  the  plant.  The  aim  would  be,  then,  to  have  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  considerably  higher  than  that  of  the 
roots. 

"Lack  of  proper  light  also  brings  about  the  following 
harmful  conditions  : 

"i.  Acids  in  the  plant  accumulate  in  the  dark,  and  in 
strong  light  they  decrease.  When  there  is  an  abundance 
of  water  in  the  plant  these  acids  draw  large  quantities 
into  the  cells,  causing  the  cells  to  swell,  resulting  many 
times  in  oedema,  or  in  the  killing  of  the  protoplasm,  so 
that  these  parts  of  the  plant  die  and  become  brown  or 
black. 

"  2.  Lack  of  light  causes  weak  cell  walls.  It  is  only 
when  well  lighted  that  plants  are  capable  of  making  sub- 
stances to  build  up  cell  walls  with.  Therefore,  lack  of 
light  not  only  favors  the  accumulation  of  water,  if  other 
things  are  favorable,  but  it  prevents  the  plants  from  build- 
ing up  strong  tissues.  In  such  cases  plants  can  grow 
themselves  to  death.  Possibly  artificial  light  might  be 
used  to  advantage. 

"A  quiet  and  close  atmosphere  also  favors  the  ac- 
cumulation of  water  in  the  plant.  Good  ventilation 
should  then  be  secured.  Some  means  for  the  artificial 
agitation  or  exchange  of  the  air  at  night  might  probably 
be  profitably  devised. 
13  FORC. 


l8o  TOMATO. 

"Varieties  of  tomatoes  more  subject  to  the  oedema: 
those  with  a  tendency  to  a  very  rapid  and  succulent 
growth  are  more  liable  to  the  trouble ;  tomatoes  which 
develop  a  firm,  woody  young  stem  are  less  liable  to  it." 
The  most  serious  disease  of  forced  tomatoes  which  I 
have  yet  encountered  is  what,  for  lack  of  a  better  name,  I 
called  the  winter  blight,  *  and  which  is  the  concern  of 
the  remainder  of  this  chapter.  This  disease  was  first  de- 
scribed in  Garden  and  Forest  in  1892.  f  The  disease  first 
appeared  in  our  house  in  the  winter  of  1890-91,  when 
about  a  dozen  plants  were  somewhat  affected.  At  this 
time  the  trouble  was  not  regarded  as  specific  ;  the  plants 
were  old,  and  had  borne  one  crop,  and  it  was  thought 


62.  Winter  blight  of  tomato. 

that  they  were  simply  worn  out.  In  some  of  our  exper- 
iments it  became  necessary  to  carry  about  a  dozen  plants 
over  the  summer,  and  these  were  introduced  into  the 
house  when  the  forcing  season  opened  the  next  October. 
From  this  stock  the  trouble  again  spread,  and  in  six  or 
eight  weeks  it  had  become  serious,  and  there  was  no  longer 
any  doubt  that  we  were  contending  with  a  specific  disease. 
This  winter  blight  attacks  the  leaves.  The  first  indi 

*  In  Bulletin  43,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta. 

t  A   New    Disease  of  the  Tomato,  by  E.  G.  Lodeman.    Garden  and 
Forest,  v.  175  (Apr.  13,  1892). 


WINTER    BLIGHT. 


181 


cation  of  the  trou- 
ble is  dwarfing  and 
slight  fading  of  the 
leaves,  and  the  ap- 
pearance of  more 
or  less  ill-defined 
yellowish  spots  or 
splashes.  These 
spots  soon  become 
dark  or  almost 
black,  and  the  leaf 
curls  and  becomes 
s  t  i  fF,  the  edges 
drawing  downward 
and  giving  the 
plant  a  wilted  ap- 
pearance. This 
condition  of  the 
leaf  is  well  shown 
in  Fig.  62  (page 
1 80).  The  spots 
grow  larger,  until 
they  often  become 
an  eighth  of  an 
inch  across,  or 
even  more,  and 
they  are  fi  n  a  1 1  y 
more  or  less  trans- 
lucent. This  in- 
jury to  the  foliage 
causes  the  plant  to 
dwindle,  and  the 
stems  become 
small  and  hard. 
Fruit  production 
is  lessened,  or  if 
the  disease  appears 
before  flowers  are  63. 
formed,  no  fruit 


A  plant  attacked  by  winter  blight   (at   the 
back),  compared  with  a  healthy  one. 


182  TOMATO. 

whatever  may  set.  In  two  or  three  instances,  in  which 
young  plants  were  attacked,  the  disease  killed  the  plant 
outright,  but  a  diseased  plant  ordinarily  lives  throughout 
the  winter,  a  constant  disappointment  to  its  owner,  but 
always  inspiring  the  vain  hope  that  greater  age  or  better 
care  may  overcome  the  difficulty.  Fig.  63  (page  181)  is 
a  graphic  illustration  of  the  appearance  of  the  disease. 
The  box  contains  two  plants,  the  lower  one  of  which  is 
healthy. 

It  is  probable  that  this  disease  is  the  work  of  germs. 
Examination  of  the  diseased  tissue  has  discovered  the 
presence  of  micrococcus,  but  the  true  relation  of  the  or- 
ganism to  the  disease  has  not  been  made  out. 

Various  treatments  have  been  tried  upon  this  disease. 
Our  first  attempt  was  thorough  spraying  with  ammonia- 
cal  carbonate  of  copper,  and  this  is  the  one  which  first 
suggests  itself  to  growers.  Our  efforts,  although  care- 
fully made  at  intervals,  were  wholly  unsuccessful.  It 
was  then  thought  that  treatment  of  the  soil  in  which 
new  plants  were  set  might  prove  effective,  and  as  our 
crop  was  grown  in  boxes,  the  experiment  was  easily 
tried. 

Boxes  in  which  diseased  plants  had  grown  were  emp- 
tied and  the  insides  were  thoroughly  washed  with  va- 
rious substances,  as  follows :  Three  with  dilute  solution 
of  ammoniacal  carbonate  of  copper ;  two  with  lime  white- 
wash ;  one  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  and  two  with  lye. 
Fresh  soil  was  placed  in  these  boxes  and  healthy  young 
plants  were  set  in  them.  The  boxes  were  then  placed 
in  the  tomato  house,  near  both  healthy  and  diseased 
plants.  For  three  or  four  weeks  the  plants  appeared 
to  be  healthy,  but  after  that  time  the  disease  attacked 
them  all  without  respect  to  treatment.  The  same  result 
followed  thorough  watering  of  the  soil  with  ammoniacal 
carbonate  of  copper,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  lye.  Late  in 
the  winter  the  remaining  plants  were  removed  from  the 
box,  the  soil  was  again  treated  with  ammoniacal  carbon- 


WINTER    BLIGHT    OF    TOMATO.  183 

ate  of  copper,  and  fresh  seedlings  were  set  in  it ;  but 
these  plants  also  contracted  the  disease.  Just  before 
this  last  treatment  was  given,  a  lo-inch  pot  was  filled 
from  the  soil  in  the  box,  and  a  seedling  from  the  same 
lot  as  those  placed  in  the  box  was  planted  in  it.  The 
pot  was  set  in  the  tomato  house.  This  plant  showed  the 
disease  in  less  than  three  weeks.  The  question  at  once 
arises  if  the  disease  was  not  communicated  through  the 
air  from  infected  plants,  rather  than  through  the  soil! 
This  I  cannot  answer,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  disease 
travels  from  plant  to  plant  which  stand  in  separate 
boxes,  and  whose  tops  do  not  touch.  Through  what 
distance  this  transfer  can  take  place  I  do  not  know. 
We  observed  it  to  have  occurred  through  a  distance  of 
2  or  3  feet,  but  a  plant  which  stood  15  feet  from  dis- 
eased plants,  but  separated  from  them  by  a  glass  parti- 
tion in  which  two  doors  stood  open,  did  not  take  the 
blight. 

All  our  experiments,  therefore,  simply  lead  us  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  best  treatment  for  this  winter  blight 
is  to  remove  all  diseased  plants  at  once,  and  if  it  be- 
comes serious  to  remove  all  the  plants  and  soil  in  the 
house  and  start  anew.  They  emphasize  the  importance 
of  starting  with  new  plants  and  fresh  soil  every  fall. 
And  all  our  experience  has  shown  that  the  disease  is 
fatal  to  success  in  tomato  forcing,  for  we  lost  our  crop 
in  an  endeavor  to  treat  it.  Since  clearing  our  houses 
thoroughly  of  this  infection,  we  have  never  had  it  again. 


CHAPTER    X. 


CUCUMBER. 

THE  cucumber  contests  with  the  tomato  the  merit  of 
being  the  most  popular  of  the  "warm"  plants  for  forc- 
ing. In  America  the  extensive  forcing  of  cucumbers  for 
market  is  of  recent  origin.  In  England,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  species  has  long  been  forced,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence there  has  developed  in  that  country  a  peculiar 
type  of  fruit,  which  is  even  yet  not  popularly  known 
in  the  United  States.  The  Americans  desire  the  short 
cucumbers  with  which  they  are  familiar  in  the  open 
garden.  So  it  happens  that  there  are  two  branches  or 
types  of  the  species  to  which  we  need  to  address  our 
attention. 

THE     ENGLISH     FORCING     TYPE     OF     CUCUMBER. 

The  English  forcing  varieties  represent  the  most  im- 
proved type  of  the  cucumber,  and  many  of  them  are  so 
distinct  in  appearance  from  our  common  kinds  that  vis- 
itors to  our  houses  often  fail  to  recognize  them  as  cu- 
cumbers. They  deserve  to  become  better  known  in  this 
country.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  market  demand 
is  more  or  less  confined  to  particular  cities,  but  it  is  in- 
creasing for  these,  as  for  all  the  better  winter  products 
of  forcing-houses.  The  smaller  and  cheaper  varieties 
are  better  adapted  to  the  general  market,  but  the  care- 
ful grower,  who  has  access  to  the  larger  markets,  by 
rail  or  otherwise,  should  be  able  to  control  a  select  and 
very  profitable  trade  in  the  English  sorts,  particularly 
(184) 


CUCUMBERS  IN  BERMUDA. 


185 


l86  CUCUMBER. 

when  grown  in  connection  with  tomatoes,  beans,  and 
other  winter  crops.  Good  fruits  sell  at  from  25  to  75 
cents  apiece,  and  on  special  occasions  even  higher. 

General  requirements.  —  The  general  requirements  of 
houses,  temperature  and  moisture  are  essentially  the 
same  as  for  the  forcing  of  tomatoes  and  beans.  The 
temperature  demanded  by  English  cucumbers  is  60°  or 
65°  at  night  and  70°  to  75°  in  the  shade  during  the  day. 
They  must  have  bottom  heat,  and  are,  therefore,  grown 
on  benches.  Cucumbers  are  vigorous  feeders,  and  water 
must  be  abundantly  supplied  to  prevent  flagging.  In 
bright  weather  the  air  should  be  kept  moist  by  wetting 
the  walks,  both  to  assist  growth  and  to  check  the  rav- 
ages of  red  spider.  The  greatest  care  is  necessary, 
however,  to  dry  the  house  off  thoroughly  every  day  or 
two  (particularly  in  dull  weather)  to  prevent  attacks  of 
mildew.  These  cucumbers  have  been  developed  in  the 
mild  and  humid  atmosphere  of  England,  and  they  seem 
to  be  particularly  liable  to  injury  by  hot  suns.  We  have 
the  best  success  in  growing  them  under  shaded  roofs. 

In  preparing  the  beds,  which  should  be  6  to  8  inches 
deep,  we  generally  place  about  an  inch  of  clinkers  or 
potsherds  on  the  boards ;  then  follows  3  or  4  inches  of 
partially  decayed  rich  sods,  preferably  from  an  old  pas- 
ture, and  the  bed  is  then  filled  with  good,  rich  garden 
soil,  to  which  has  been  added  one-fourth  part  of  well- 
rotted  manure.  If  the  soil  is  somewhat  sticky  when  a 
damp  portion  of  it  is  pressed  in  the  hand,  enough  sand 
is  added  to  make  it  loose  and  porous.  During  the  win- 
ter liquid  manure  is  applied  as  occasion  seems  to  de- 
mand. It  is  imperative  that  the  soil  be  very  rich.  Pro- 
ductiveness in  the  cucumber  is  almost  entirely  a  ques- 
tion of  food.  Most  gardeners  suppose  that  three  or  four 
of  these  large  cucumbers  are  all  that  a  plant  can  bear  at 
one  time ;  but  the  crop  will  depend  very  greatly  upon 
the  food,  and  the  room  which  they  have  on  the  bench. 
We  have  had  as  many  as  14  large  cucumbers  on  a  vine 


STARTING  THE  PLANTS.  187 

at  one  time.      If  the  fruits  are  picked   as   soon   as   they 
arrive  at  edible  size,  the  crop  will  be  the  larger. 

The  plants  are  started  in  flats,  upon  small  squares  of  in- 
verted sods,  or  in  pots'  I  prefer  the  pots.  We  use  3-inch 
rose-pots,  filling  them  only  a  third  full  of  earth.  When 
the  plant  has  formed  a  pair  of  true  leaves  and  stands  well 
above  the  brim,  the  pot  is  filled  with  earth.  This  affords 
additional  root  space  and  renders  transplanting  unneces- 
sary. When  the  pots  are  well  filled  with  roots,  the  plants 
are  transferred  directly  to  the  beds.  Now  comes  one  of 
the  most  critical  times  in  cucumber  forcing.  The  young 
plants  are  very  liable  to  the  attacks  of  aphis  and  fungi, 
and  any  failure  in  the  bottom  heat  will  seriously  affect 
them.  There  are  very  few  vegetables  which  require 
such  careful  attention  until  they  become  established. 
The  aphis  — which  is  mentioned  later  on  —  must  be  kept 
off,  or  the  plant  will  be  ruined,  even  in  a  few  days.  A 
stunted  cucumber  plant  will  make  a  short,  bunchy- 
growth  at  the  top,  and  the  leaves  will  be  small  and  yel- 
lowish ;  it  may  remain  almost  stationary  for  some  weeks. 
Even  if  it  finally  resumes  vigorous  growth,  it  rarely  be- 
comes a  profitable  plant.  Some  plants  become  stunted 
without  apparent  cause.  A  prolific  source  of  poor  plants 
is  the  growing  of  the  seedlings  in  fall  before  the  fires 
are  started,  for  if  the  young  plants  become  cold  at  night 
they  will  almost  surely  be  ruined.  To  insure  a  good 
stand,  I  advise  starting  three  or  four  times  as  many 
plants  as  are  needed.  The  most  vigorous  ones  are  set 
out  a  foot  or  foot  and  a  half  apart  upon  the  benches. 
As  soon  as  the  plants  are  established,  the  weaker  ones 
are  destroyed,  leaving  the  remaining  individuals  from 
2K  to  3  feet  apart.  A  good  plant  will  grow  vigorously 
from  the  start,  and  sometimes  the  lower  leaves  will  fall 
off,  giving  it  a  scraggly  and  diseased  appearance ;  but 
so  long  as  the  growing  portions  are  vigorous  and  the 
leaves  are  not  attacked  by  mildew,  the  plant  is  in  good 
condition. 


188 


CUCUMBER. 


Training.  —  The  plants  must  now  be  trained.  We 
make  a  simple  trellis  of  No.  18  annealed  wire.  When 
there  is  sufficient  room  above  the  benches  the  plants 
are  trained  upon  a  perpendicular  trellis,  but  on  low 
benches  they  are  trained  along  the  roof.  The  wires 
are  stretched  lengthwise  the  house  in  parallel  strands 
from  a  foot  to  a  foot  and  a  half  apart,  and  cross-wires 
are  run  down  from  the  rafters  every  4  or  5  feet  to  pre- 


6s.    A  large  crop  of  English  cucumbers. 

vent  the  strands  from  sagging.  The  vines  are  tied  upon 
the  wires  with  raffia  or  other  soft  cord.  Two  or  three 
strong  main  branches  are  trained  out,  and  only  enough 
side  shoots  are  allowed  to  grow  to  cover  the  trellis,  the 
remaining  ones  being  pinched  out  as  soon  as  they 
appear.  It  is  essential  that  the  plants  do  not  become 
"choked"  or  overcrowded  with  young  growth,  and 
some  of  the  large  leaves  may  be  taken  off  in  the  dark 
days  of  midwinter  if  the  foliage  becomes  very  dense. 


WHEN    THEY    BEAR.  l8g 

The  branches  are  all  headed-in  as  soon  as  they  reach 
the  top  of  the  trellis  or  begin  to  encroach  upon  the 
space  allowed  for  neighboring  plants.  If  the  plants 
grow  very  rapidly  and  the  trellis  is  large,  some  prelimi- 
nary heading  back  may  be  useful,  but  we  have  not  prac- 
ticed the  very  close  pinching-in  system  recommended  by 
English  growers. 

Bearing  age.  —  Growers  who  .find  no  difficulty  in  forc- 
ing the  common  cucumbers  in  winter  often  fail  with  the 
English  sorts.  I  am  convinced  that  this  failure  comes 
mostly  from  two  errors  :  insufficient  bottom  heat,  and 
impatience  for  quick  results.  The  grower  must  under- 
stand that  earliness  is  not  a  characteristic  of  the  English 
cucumbers.  From  the  sowing  of  seed  to  marketable 
fruits,  in  midwinter,  is  an  average  of  80  to  100  days,  in 
our  experience.  From  a  month  to  six  weeks  is  required 
for  the  fruit  to  attain  saleable  size  after  the  flower  is 
set.  A  writer  in  Reime  Horticole  in  1874,  records  the 
growing  of  Telegraph  in  65  days  from  seed,  which  was 
the  quickest  time  on  record  in  his  vicinity.  This  experi- 
ment was  made  from  February  to  April,  however,  when 
the  days  are  lengthening.  The  plants  continue  in  bearing 
for  three  or  four  months  under  good  treatment,  and  a 
plant  ought  to  yield  at  least  eight  goods  fruits.  If  the 
plants  are  pmched-in  after  the  English  custom,  and  al- 
lowed to  bear  but  two  or  three  fruits  at  a  time,  the 
fruiting  season  can  be  extended,  and  probably  a  larger 
number  of  fruits  can  be  obtained ;  but  it  is  probably 
more  profitable,  especially  in  small  houses,  to  secure 
the  returns  more  quickly,  in  order  to  obtain  a  larger 
supply  at  any  given  time.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
allow  the  heavy  fruits  to  pull  the  vines  off  the  support, 
and  those  which  do  not  hang  free  should  be  held  up  in 
slings,  for  if  allowed  to  lie  on  the  soil,  they  do  not  color 
evenly.  Fig.  65  (see  opposite  page)  shows  (two  fruits  at 
the  right)  the  method  of  swinging  the  fruits  in  slings. 
This  swinging  also  appears  to  exert  some  influence  upon 


igo 


CUCUMBER . 


the  shape  of  the  fruit,  as  will  be  discussed  farther  on 
The  figure  (made  from  life)  shows  a  successful  cucum- 
ber house  in  full  bearing. 


66.     Three  prominent  varieties:  S,  Sion  House;  E,  Duke  of  Edin- 
burgh •    T,    Telegraph. 

Varieties.  —  There  are  many  good  varieties  of  English 
cucumbers.  We  have  grown  Sion  House  (S,  Fig.  66) 
most  largely,  and  for  general  purposes  we  prefer  it.  It 


THE    VARIETIES.  igi 

is  of  medium  length,  averaging  a  foot  or  14  inches  when 
fully  mature,  smooth  and  regular.  It  would  probably 
sell  better  than  the  larger  sorts  in  markets  which  are 
unaccustomed  to  the  large  English  varieties.  Telegraph 
(T,  Fig.  66)  is  also  a  favorite  and  productive  variety, 
and  is  probably  the  most  popular  one  with  commercial 
growers.  It  is  a  smooth,  slender,  and  very  handsome 
fruit,  ordinarily  attaining  a  length  of  18  or  20  inches. 
English  authorities  say  that  this  variety  is  very  liable  to 
mixture,  but  we  have  never'  had  such  experience.  Ken- 
yon  (Lord  Kenyan's  Favorite')  is  also  an  excellent 
smooth,  slender  sort  of  medium  length.  Edinburgh 
(Duke  of  Edinburgh)  is  a  spiny  and  somewhat  furrowed 
variety,  attaining  a  length  of  20  to  24  inches  (E,  Fig.  66  . 
It  is  not  an  attractive  variety,  and  we  prefer  others. 
Lome  (Marquis  of  Lome)  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  very 
large  sorts.  We  have  grown  a  fruit  of  this  33^  inches 
long,  and  it  was  a  perfect  specimen.  Blue  Gown  is 
also  an  old  favorite. 

Very  large  fruits  are  less  popular  than  those  of  me- 
dium length.  They  are  too  large  for  convenient  table 
ase,  and  they  are  apt  to  be  inferior  in  quality  to  those 
a  foot  in  length.  The  flavor  of  English  cucumbers  is 
somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  common  field  sorts, 
the  texture  being,  as  a  rule,  somewhat  less  breaking. 
But  this  is  not  an  evidence  of  poor  quality ;  it  is  simply 
a  different  quality,  and  evidently  belongs  to  these  fruits 
as  a  class.  The  English  sorts  retain  their  green  color 
longer  than  the  field  varieties.  They  are  ordinarily 
picked  before  they  attain  their  complete  growth,  al- 
though they  remain  edible  for  some  time  after  they  have 
reached  maturity. 

The  reader  will  now  be  able  to  understand  what  the 
English  mean  by  "prize  cucumbers."  Specimen  fruits 
are  exhibited  at  the  shows,  and  there  are  certain  cus- 
tomary scales  of  points  for  determining  the  merits  of 
individual  fruits,  such  as  the  age  of  the  specimen,  the 


IQ2  CUCUMBER. 

ratio  of  thickness  to    length,    the    shape  of    the  shoulder 
or  stem  end,  the  color  of  the  tip,  and  the  like. 

Origin  of  this  type  of  cucumber.  —  To  the  student  of 
plant  variation,  the  forcing  cucumbers  possess  unus- 
ual interest.  As  a  class,  these  cucumbers  are  very  dis- 
tinct from  all  others,  and  yet  they  are  known  to  have 
come  in  recent  times  from  the  shorter  and  spiny  field 
sorts,  at  least  those  particular  varieties  which  we 
now  grow.  It  is  not  improbable  that  very  long  cu- 
cumbers were  known  some  centuries  ago.  The  Cu- 
ciimis  longus  of  Bauhin,  1651,  is  figured,  as  pointed 
out  by  Sturtevant*,  "as  if  equaling  our  longest  and  best 
English  forms."  But  these  older  types  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  the  ancestors  of  our  modern  forcing  kinds. 
Our  types  all  appear  to  have  originated  within  the  pres- 
ent century.  The  English  have  always  been  obliged, 
because  of  their  climatic  limitations,  to  grow  cucumbers 
largely  by  the  aid  of  artificial  heat,  and  since  the  im- 
provements inaugurated  by  M'Phailf  over  a  century  ago, 
and  extended  by  others  shortly  afterwards,  special  pits 
or  houses  have  been  designed  for  them.  "Under  these 
conditions,"  as  Vilmorin  remarks,!  "the  race  could  not 
fail  to  greatly  improve  in  appearance  and  size,  earliness 
and  hardiness  being  regarded  as  qualities  of  secondary 
importance.  This  has  actually  occurred,  and  there  are 
now  in  cultivation  in  England  about  ten  or  a  dozen  va- 
rieties of  the  long  green  cucumber,  all  bearing  long  and 
nearly  cylindrical  fruits,  nearly  spineless,  with  solid  flesh, 
and  seeding  very  sparingly."  M'Phail  and  other  early 
writers  do  not  speak  of  special  or  named  kinds  for  forcing, 
showing  that  there  had  been  little  departure  at  that  time 
from  common  sorts.  The  earliest  mention  which  I  find  of 


*  Amer.  Nat.  1887,  909. 

fA   Treatise  on   the   Culture  of  the  Cucumber,  by  James   M'Phail, 
Second  ed.  1795. 

\  Les  Plantes  Potageres,  Second  ed.  187. 


HISTORY    OF   THESE   CUCUMBERS.  193 

a  named  long  forcing  cucumber  was  written  in  1822.*  It 
recites  that  in  1820  Patrick  Flanagan,  gardener  to  Sir 
Thomas  Hare,  sent  two  specimens  of  cucumbers,  one 
green  and  the  other  ripe,  to  the  London  Horticultural 
Society.  The  green  one  measured  17  inches  in  length, 
was  nearly  7  inches  in  circumference,  and  weighed  26 
ounces.  The  ripe  one  was  25^  inches  long,  11%  inches 
in  circumference,  and  weighed  6  Ibs.  The  record  con- 
tinues :  "Mr.  Flanagan  states  that  he  has  frequently 
grown  these  cucumbers  in  high  perfection  for  the  table, 
near  2  feet  long;  in  1811  he  produced  one  in  a  stove 
which  measured  31  inches  in  length,  was  12  inches  in 
circumference,  and  weighed  n  pounds.  This  is  a  re- 
markable variety  of  the  cucumber,  combining  with  such 
extraordinary  vigor  of  growth  so  much  excellence  of 
flavor  as  to  make  it  particularly  deserving  of  notice. 
Some  seeds  were  communicated  to  the  society,  and 
have  been  distributed  under  the  name  of  Flanagan's  cu- 
cumber. The  sort  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Flanagan  in 
1804,  from  a  friend  in  Buckinghamshire.  It  keeps  true 
to  itself,  without  variation ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  make 
it  yield  seed.  It  requires  to  be  grown  in  high  tempera- 
ture." The  surprise  which  these  fruits  occasioned  among 
a  body  of  gardeners  indicates  that  they  were  novelties. 
I  cannot  understand  the  great  weight  of  the  large  cucum- 
ber. Our  specimens  of  larger  size  weigh  only  about  a 
third  as  much.  The  oldest  of  the  varieties  which  we 
now  cultivate  appears  to  be  the  Sion  House,  a  product 
of  the  gardens  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  at  Brent- 
ford, in  Middlesex,  to  which  the  gardening  world  is  in- 
debted for  many  achievements.  I  presume  that  the  first 
record  which  was  made  of  this  variety  is  that  written  by 
the  conductor  of  the  Gardeners'  Magazine  early  in  1831, 
as  follows  :  f  "  An  excellent  variety  of  cucumber  is  grow- 

*  Trans.  London  Hort.  Soc.  iv.  560. 
fGard.  Mag.  vii.  101. 


194  CUCUMBER. 

ing  in  the  forcing  houses  at  Syon.*  The  fruit  is  long, 
perfectly  smooth,  and  the  leaves  extremely  large  (18 
inches  across)  ;  they  are  grown  in  boxes  placed  over  the 
back  flue  of  the  pine-pits,  and  the  shoots  trained  under 
the  glass  over  the  pits.  Mr.  Forrest  [gardener]  has 
gathered  fruit  daily  since  October  last,  and  will  continue 
to  do  so,  if  he  chooses,  all  the  year  round."  In  his 
first  edition  of  Plantes  Potageres,  Vilmorin  says  that 
the  Sion  House  was  raised  from  the  White  cucumber, 
but  he  omits  the  statement  in  the  second  edition  ;  and 
I  am  unable  to  find  any  confirmation  of  it. 

From  this  comparatively  recent  beginning  the  Eng 
ligh  cucumbers  have  diverged  widely  from  their  parents. 
In  all  the  following  characters  they  differ,  as  a  rule, 
from  common  cucumbers.  The  fruits  (and  ovaries)  are 
very  long  and  slender,  cylindrical  (not  ridged  or  fur- 
rowed), spineless  or  nearly  so  at  maturity,  remain  bright 
green  until  full  maturity,  and  seeds  are  produced  spar- 
ingly ;  the  flowers  are  very  large ;  the  vines  are  very 
vigorous  and  long,  with  long  and  thick  tendrils ;  and 
the  leaves  are  very  broad  in  proportion  to  their  length, 
and  the  full  grown  ones  appear  to  have  a  tendency  to 
make  shallower  sinuses  or  angles  than  do  the  field  kinds. 
But  the  most  remarkable  peculiarity  is  the  habit  of  pro- 
ducing seedless  fruits,  which  is  discussed  farther  on. 

In  1859,  Naudin  f  grouped  all  cultivated  cucumbers 
under  four  divisions  :  Small  Russian,  Common  Long, 
White,  and  Sikkim  (later  described  by  Sir  J.  13.  Hooker 
as  Cucumis  sativus  var.  Sikkimensis).  Recently  Sturte- 
vant.J  omitting  the  Sikkim  cucumber,  has  grouped  them 
under  six  heads:  Common  cucumbers;  "a  second  form, 
very  near  to  the  above,  but  longer,  less  rounding,  and 
more  prickly;"  "smooth  and  medium-long  cucumbers;" 
English  or  forcing  kinds ;  white ;  Russian.  I  am  not 

*  Sion  appears  to  be  the  later  and  preferable  spelling. 
fAnn.  Sci.  Nat.  But.  4th  Ser.  xi.  28. 
JAmer.  Nat.  1887,  908. 


THE    DIFFERENT    FLOWERS.  195 

sure  that  this  latter  classification  is  a  practicable  one, 
but  it  is  certainly  well  to  place  the  English  forcing  va- 
rieties in  a  group  alone. 

Pollination  —  Ill-shaped  fruits.  —  Cucumbers  are  mo- 
noecious plants  :  that  is,  the  sexes  are  borne  in  separate 
flowers  on  the  same  plant.  Fig.  67  represents  the  two 
kinds  of  flowers  on  the  common  field  cucumber.  P  is 
the  pistillate  or  fruit-bearing  flower.  The  young  cucum- 
ber, or  ovary,  can  be  seen  below  the  petals  or  leaves 
of  the  flower.  S  shows  the  staminate  flower,  which  per- 
sists only  long  enough  to  supply  pollen  to  fertilize  the 
pistillate  flowers.  The  staminate  flowers  are  more  nu- 
merous than  the  pistillate,  and  they  begin  to  appear 


67.    The  pollen-bearing  and  fruit-bearing  flowers. 

earlier ;  a  sufficient  supply  of  pollen  is  therefore  insured 
against  all  exigencies  of  weather  or  other  untoward  cir- 
cumstances. Out  of  doors  the  pollen  is  carried  from 
the  staminate  to  the  pistillate  flower  by  insects,  but  pol- 
len-carrying insects  are  absent  from  the  greenhouse.  If 
the  flowers  are  fertilized  in  the  house,  therefore,  the  pol- 
len must  be  carried  by  hand.  It  is  certain  that  some 
plants  of  English  cucumbers  will  set  fruit  to  perfection 
without  seeds  and  entirely  without  the  aid  of  pollen, 
but  other  plants  (and  in  our  experience  they  have  been 
greatly  in  the  majority)  utterly  refuse  to  do  so.  I  do 
14  FORC. 


ig6  CUCUMBER. 

not  know  if  this  is  true  of  the  common  cucumbers,  but 
we  have  made  several  unsuccessful  efforts  to  grow  Me- 
dium Green  (Nicholas  Medium  Green}  in  the  house 
without  pollination.  In  the  early  days  of  cucumber  forc- 
ing, hand  pollination  was  practiced,  but  it  has  been 
abandoned  by  many  growers.*  It  is  possible  that  the 
forcing  cucumber  sets  more  freely  now  without  pollen 
than  it  did  before  its  characters  were  well  fixed,  or  per- 
haps the  early  gardeners  performed  an  unnecessary  labor. 
We  have  sometimes  thought  that  the  fruits  set  more 
freely  without  pollination  as  the  plants  become  matu  e. 
As  a  result  of  several  years'  experience,  however,  we 
find  that  hand  pollination  is  essential  to  the  certainty  of 
securing  a  crop. 

Many  gardeners  suppose  that    pollen  causes   the  fruit 
to  grow  large  at  the  end,  as  in  Fig.  68,  and  they,  there- 


*"  Fertilization  was  formerly  considered  necessary  for  the  setting 
of  cucumbers,  but  it  has  long  been  proved  to  be  needless.  Indeed, 
fruits  intended  for  eating  are  better  without,  as  the  seeds  in  them  are 


lot  so  numerous.  For  seeding  purposes  fertilization  is  decidedly  re- 
quired, if  good,  heavy  seed  be  needed."— Kitchen  and  Market  Card,  iw 
(London,  1887). 

"  Except  for  seeding  purposes,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  latter 
[pistillate  flowers]  should  be  fertilized,  the  fruit  reaching  the  same 
size,  and  being  all  the  better  for  the  absence  of  seeds.  In  winter 
time,  or  in  the  case  of  weak  plants,  the  whole  of  the  male  flowers 
might  with  advantage  be  kept  removed." — Nicholson's  Diet.  Card, 
i,  405- 


and  as  the  sash  stands  open  nearly  every  day,  it  is,  of  course,  con; 
visited  by  bees.  The  result  in  the  number  and  growth  of  cucu 
is  no  better  than  when  I  did  not  pollinate,  nor  when  there  were  n 


UNSHAPELY   FRUITS. 


IQ7 


fore,  aim  to  produce  seedless  cucumbers  for  the  double 
purpose    of     saving     labor     and     of    procuring 
straighter    and    more    shapely  fruits.       For    sev- 
eral   years    we    have    made    experiments    upon 
these    questions,    but    we    are    not    yet    able    to 
make     many     definite     statements      concerning 
them  ;    we  think,  however,  that  the  large  thick- 
ened ends  of  fruits  like   Fig.   68  are  caused  by 
the  production    of    seeds  in  that  portion.      The 
early  flowers  nearly  always  fail  to  set  if  pollen 
is  withheld,  but  late  flowers  upon  the  same  plant 
may  set  freely    with    no    pollen.       Fruits   which 
have  set  without  pollination  are  uniformly  seed- 
less   throughout,    as     shown    in    Fig.    69    (page 
198),   the  walls  of   the  ovules    remaining    loose 
and    empty.      Pollination    does    not  occur  when 
the  fruits  are  left  to  themselves  in  the   forcing- 
house,    especially    in     midwinter,    when    pollen- 
carrying    insects    are    not    present.      Upon    old 
plants  we  often  prevent  pollination,   for  experi- 
mental   purposes,  by  tying  together  the 
flower   tube,    or   occasionally  by  cutting 
off  the  flower  bud  altogether   from   the 
top  of    the  ovary    or    young   cucumbe^ 
but  this  latter  method  is  uncertain. 

In  pollinating,  we  follow  the  same 
method  advised  by  Abercrombie  and 
other  writers  of  the  last  century, — pick 
off  a  staminate  flower,  strip  back  the  co- 
rolla, and  insert  the  column  of  anthers  68.  A  misshapen 
into  a  pistillate  flower.  Sruit- 

The  production  of  misshapen  fruits  is  one  of  the  dif- 
ficulties of  cucumber  forcing.  The  commonest  deformity 
is  the  large  end  shown  in  Fig.  68.  English  gardeners 
often  grow  the  fruits  in  glass  tubes  to  make  them 
straight.  The  cause  of  the  deformities,  particularly  of 
the  swollen  end,  is  obscure.  The  forcing  cucumber  pro- 


ig8 


CUCUMBER. 


.     A 

fiui 
pio 


seedless  (not  pollinated) 
'..  The  tietKsmrd  Cham 
cucumber. 


duces  seeds  only  near  the 
blossom  end,  the  ovules  in 
the  remaining  half  or  two- 
thirds  never  filling  out,  no 
matter  how  much  pollen  is 
applied  to  the  stigma.  It 
would  seem,  therefore,  that 
if  all  these  ovules  in  the 
blossom  end  were  to  de- 
velop into  good  seeds,  the 
fruit  must  be  larger  at  this 
point.  And  it  would  also 
seem  as  if  accidental  appli- 
cation of  pollen  to  one  side 
of  the  stigma  must  make  the 
fruit  one-sided  by  developing 
one  cell  at  the  expense  of 
another,  for  this  actually  oc- 
curs in  tomatoes  and  apples. 
But  we  have  found  that  seed- 
bearing  is  not  necessarily  as- 
sociated with  a  swollen  end 
to  the  fruit,  and  pollination 
of  one  side  does  not  appear 
to  destroy  the  symmetry  of 
the  fruit.  \Ve  have  per- 
formed many  experiments 
upon  the  influences  of  differ- 
ent amounts  of  pollen,  but 
find  that  there  is  very  little 
difference  in  external  results, 
whether  little  or  much  pol- 
len is  used.  This  is  directly 
contrary  to  our  experience 
with  winter  tomatoes.  Little 
pollen  (30  to  50  pollen 
grains)  may  produce  fewer 
seeds  than  much  pollen  (200 


CUCUMBER    CROSSES.  igg 

or  more  pollen  grains),  but  the  shape  of  the  fruit  is  not 
necessarily  influenced.  And  yet  there  are  instances  in 
which  pollination  appears  to  make  the  fruit  unshapely, 
but  why  it  should  exert  this  influence  at  some  times  and 
not  at  others  I  am  unable  at  present  to  state.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  often  a  peculiarity  or  variation  of  indi- 
vidual plants.  There  were  two  plants  in  our  house  one 
winter  which  invariably  produced  deformed  fruits  when 
pollen  was  used,  although  fruits  on  other  plants  along- 
side were  not  influenced  by  pollen.  Upon  these  suscepti- 
ble individuals  we  found  that  the  pollinated  fruits  would 
grow  to  uniform  thickness  if  they  were  swung  or  tied  up, 
as  recommended  on  page  189.  It  is  probable  that  much 
of  the  irregularity  in  shape  is  but  an  expression  of  plant 
variation,  rather  than  a  result  of  particular  treatment.  It 
is  an  interesting  fact  in  the  variation  of  plants  under 
domestication  that  the  long  English  cucumber  cannot 
produce  seed  in  its  lower  half,  although  ovules  are 
usually  present.  It  is  probable  that  the  fruit  has  been 
developed  to  such  a  length  that  the  pollen-tubes  cannot 
reach  the  remote  ovules. 

Crosses.  —  The  English  forcing  cucumbers  cannot  be 
successfully  grown  in  the  field,  but  they  possess  some 
points  of  merit  for  a  field  cucumber,  as  smoothness  and 
cylindricity,  length,  and  great  vigor  of  vine.  We  there- 
fore attempted  some  crosses  in  the  winter  of  1889-90  be- 
tween the  Sion  House  and  Medium  Green,  hoping  to 
produce  a  superior  sort  for  outdoor  use.  Our  results 
have  been  exceedingly  interesting  from  a  scientific  point 
of  view,  although  we  have  not  yet  procured  the  cucum- 
ber which  we  sought.  Fruits  of  unusual  promise  have 
been  obtained,  but  they  have  not  produced  good  seeds. 
Some  of  the  mongrel  fruits  developed  a  peculiar  weak- 
ness in  the  tendency  of  the  placentae  or  cell  walls  to  de- 
cay. The  seeds  did  not  mature,  and  the  soft,  pulpy  tis- 
sue about  them  solidified.  Near  the  apex  of  the  fruit  the 
placentae  tended  to  break  away  from  the  body,  and  in 


2OO  CUCUMBER. 

the  cavities  decay  set  in  and  extended  finally  to  the  base 
of  the  fruit.  All  the  fruits  upon  one  of  the  mongrel 
plants  behaved  in  this  manner.  In  no  case  had  the  fruit 
been  injured,  nor  was  the  decay  visible  upon  the  exterior 
until  it  had  extended  well  down  the  fruit.  I  am  unable 
to  account  for  it. 

In  most  instances,  the  mongrel  vines  resembled  the 
Medium  Green  (the  staminate  parent)  more  than  the 
Sion  House.  The  fruits  were  generally  intermediate, 
although  almost  every  gradation  was  observed.  Some- 
times the  fruits  would  vary  widely  upon  the  same  plant. 
A  number  of  vines  bore  beautiful  fruits  twice  longer 
than  the  Medium  Green,  nearly  cylindrical,  with  very 
few  spines  ;  and  we  are  looking  for  good  results  from 
this  or  some  similar  cross. 

Enemies.  —  The  most  serious  enemy  with  which  we 
have  had  to  contend  in  cucumber  forcing  is  the  spotted 
mite,  which  feeds  upon  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves, 
destroying  the  green  tissue.  This  pest  is  treated  in  the 
preceding  chapter  (page  176). 

A  large  coal-black  aphis  or  plant-louse  (probably 
Aphis  rumicis,  Linn.),  has  been  a  serious  pest.  It  is 
the  worst  aphis  with  which  I  have  ever  had  experience, 
and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  prevent  its  becom- 
ing established  upon  the  plants.  It  can  be  destroyed  by 
persistent  fumigation,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  cucumber  cannot  endure  a  very  heavy  smudge. 

The  root-gall  (already  described  on  pages  84  and 
85)  is  often  serious  in  cucumber  houses. 

The  powdery  mildew  (Erysiphe  Cichoracearum,  or 
Oidimn  crysiphoides  var.  Cucurbitaruni)  is  a  serious  en- 
emy to  cucumber  culture  if  it  once  gains  a  good  foot- 
hold. It  will  soon  ruin  the  plants.  The  disease  is  su- 
perinduced by  too  close  and  moist  atmosphere  and  a 
too  soft  condition  of  the  foliage.  It  usually  begins  as 
light  green  or  yellowish  ragged  spots  —  a  quarter-inch 
or  half-inch  across  —  on  the  leaves,  and  generally  soon 


THE   WHITE    SPINES.  2OI 

develops  into  frosty  patches.  When  it  appears,  dry  off 
the  house,  raise  the  temperature,  and  give  plenty  of  air 
(without  any  draughts).  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  dust 
the  foliage  thoroughly  with  powdered  sulphur.  If  the 
disease  threatens  to  become  serious,  sulphur  should  be 
evaporated  in  the  house.  Flowers  of  sulphur  is  placed 
in  a  small  basin  and  set  upon  a  small  oil  stove  (Fig.  31, 
page  92).  The  house  is  tightly  closed,  and  enough 
sulphur  is  evaporated  to  completely  fill  the  house  with 
strong  fumes  for  a  half  hour.  Care  must  be  exercised 
that  the  sulphur  does  not  take  fire,  for  burning  sulphur 
is  very  injurious  to  plants. 

THE    WHITE    SPINE    TYPES    OF    CUCUMBER. 

The  forcing  of  the  White  Spine  types  of  cucumber  is 
not  greatly  different  from  that  of  the  true  forcing  types. 
The  chief  points  of  dissimilarity  to  be  borne  in  mind  are 
these :  The  White  Spine  types  are  shorter-lived  than  the 
others,  and  tend  to  ripen  up  their  crop  at  once  ;  they 
are  less  succulent  in  growth,  and  demand  full  sunlight 
for  their  best  development ;  they  can  be  readily  grown 
under  glass  in  summer,  after  the  house  is  cleared  of  its 
winter  crops,  thereby  giving  a  crop  much  in  advance  of 
the  outdoor  plants ;  they  seem  always  to  require  pollina- 
tion, either  by  hand  or  by  bees ;  they  are  less  rampant 
growers,  and  bear  smaller  leaves  than  the  others,  and 
may,  therefore,  be  planted  somewhat  closer. 

With  these  contrasts  in  mind,  the  reader  who  has 
followed  the  discussion  of  the  English  cucumber  in  the 
preceding  pages  will  have  no  difficulty  in  apprehending 
the  essential  points  in  the  management  of  these  Ameri- 
can cucumbers.  The  plants  will  mature  the  crop  in 
about  three  months  from  the  time  they  are  put  on  the 
benches.  A  certain  house  of  68  plants  yielded,  in  three 
months,  6,180  fruits,  or  an  average  of  90  to  the  plant. 
This  was  possible  because  every  fruit  was  picked  the 


CUCUMBER, 


YIELDS   AND    PRICES.  2O3 

moment  it  was  fit  for  sale,  and  the  crop  was  grown  from 
April  to  June.  A  common  method  of  growing  them  is 
to  let  them  follow  lettuce.  Two  or  three  crops  of  let- 
tuce can  be  taken  from  a  house  by  early  spring  (say  by 
March),  and  cucumber  plants  may  then  be  ready  to  be 
set  in  the  beds.  These  four  crops  should  bring  in  a 
gross  return  of  30  to  50  cents  a  square  foot  of  ground, 
the  income  depending  mostly  upon  the  man.  Even  in 
winter,  these  plants  can  be  grown  in  houses  which 
were  designed  for  lettuce,  if  the  temperature  is  kept 
pretty  high,  for  these  types  of  cucumbers  do  not  de- 
mand bottom  heat  so  imperatively  as  the  English  kinds 
do.  A  cucumber  forcer  tells  me  that  he  generally  re- 
ceives $3  per  dozen  for  extra  quality  of  White  Spine 
(or  Boston  Market)  cucumbers,  and  $4  per  dozen  for  the 
forcing  kinds. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


MUSKMELON. 

"THERE  is  not,  I  believe,  any  species  of  fruit  at  pres- 
ent cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  this  country,"  wrote 
Thomas  Andrew  Knight,  in  1811,  "which  so  rarely  ac- 
quires the  greatest  degree  of  perfection,  which  it  is  capa- 
ble of  acquiring  in  our  climate,  as  the  melon."  The 
melon  is  particularly  prized  in  England,  for,  because  of 
the  coolness  of  the  climate,  it  is  generally  grown  to  per- 
fection only  under  glass,  and  is  thereby  appreciated  ; 
and  it  is  in  England,  too,  that  one  finds  the  most  expert 
methods  of  growing  it.  The  melon  is  treated  there, 
however,  as  a  spring  or  early  summer,  or  late  fall,  crop. 

The  forcing  of  melons  for  delivery  in  midwinter  is 
practically  unknown.  The  fruit  is  often  grown  as  an 
early  winter  crop,  ripening  in  October  and  early  Novem- 
ber, and  the  seeds  are  often  sown  in  January  and  the 
melons  matured  in  May  and  June.  Gardeners  now  and 
then  ripen  a  few  melons  in  midwinter,  but  the  fruits  are 
almost  invariably  very  poor,  or  even  disagreeable,  in 
quality.  The  writer  has  long  been  convinced  that  it  is 
possible  to  secure  good  melons  in  December,  January 
and  February,  and  to  grow  them  nearly  as  cheaply  as 
the  English  or  frame  cucumbers.  The  attempt  was  first 
made  in  the  winter  of  1889-90,  and  it  has  been  repeated 
more  or  less  persistently  until  the  present  time,  and  the 
results  during  the  past  two  years  have  been  satisfac- 
tory. The  melon  is  certainly  the  refinement  of  the 
vegetable  garden.  To  get  it  in  midwinter,  with  the 
(204) 


EPITOME    OF    MELON   FORCING.  205 

sweetness  and  fragrance  of  August,  is  no  mean  ambi- 
tion. Then,  if  at  no  other  time,  one  may  exclaim  with 
Thoreau  — 

"And  what  saith  Adshed  of  the  melon ? 

"  '  Color,  taste,  and  smell,— smaragdus,  honey,  and  musk  ; 
Amber  for  the  tongue,  for  the  eye  a  picture  rare ; 
If  you  cut  the  fruit  in  slices,  every  slice  a  crescent  fair; 
If  you  have  it  whole,  the  full  harvest  moon  is  there.'" 

In  order  to  satisfy  the  reader's  curiosity  at  the  outset, 
I  will  say  that  the  essentials  for  growing  midwinter  mel- 
ons, as  I  understand  them,  are  these  :  High  temperature 
from  the  start  (80°  to  85°  at  midday,  and  65°  to  70°  at 
night)  ;  the  plants  must  never  be  checked,  even  from  the 
moment  the  seeds  germinate,  either  by  insects,  fungi,  low 
temperature,  or  delay  in  "handling" ;  dry  ness  at  time 
of  ripening ;  a  soil  containing  plenty  of  mineral  ele- 
ments, particularly,  of  course,  potash  and  phosphoric  acid ; 
pollinifcrous  varieties ;  the  selection  of  varieties  adapted 
to  the  purpose.  All  these  requirements  seem  to  be  easy 
enough  of  attainment  as  one  reads  them,  but  it  has  taken 
us  six  years  to  learn  them.  Others  would  no  doubt  have 
been  more  expeditious  ;  but  it  should  be  said  that  no 
one  of  these  conditions  will  insure  success,  but  all  of 
them  must  be  put  together. 

Watermelons  are  not  forced,  as  they  demand  a  too 
long  season,  make  too  rampant  growth,  and  probably 
would  not  develop  their  best  quality  in  midwinter.  I 
have  seen  them  ripened  in  a  glass  house  in  early  sum- 
mer, following  winter  crops,  with  fair  success.  It  is 
probable  that  forcing  varieties  could  be  developed,  but 
it  is  doubtful  if  the  fruits  would  be  large  enough  to  meet 
with  ready  sale. 

The  house.— A  hou?  which  is  adapted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  English  cucumbers  or  tomatoes  should  grow  mel- 
ons. The  first  requisite  is  heat.  The  capacity  of  the 
heating  system  must  be  sufficient  to  maintain  a  high 
temperature  in  the  coldest  weather.  The  house  should 


206 


MU  SKMELON 


THE    HEAT    AND    THE    SOIL.  2OJ 

be  free  of  draughts  and  large  leaks.  Our  melon  house 
opens  into  sheds  at  both  ends,  so  that  no  outside  air 
ever  blows  into  it ;  yet  even  here  we  lock  up  the  house 
from  the  time  the  melons  begin  to  form,  to  prevent  per- 
sons from  passing  through  it.  We  like  to  keep  the  room 
close.  It  should  be  capable  of  being  kept  dry.  There 
should  be  ample  room  over  the  benches  for  training  the 
vines  5  to  6  feet.  We  use  benches,  for  melons  must 
have  strong  bottom  heat.  Fig.  71  (page  206)  is  a  view 
in  our  melon  house,  taken  on  the  3rd  of  October  (at  this 
time  many  of  the  melons  were  as  large  as  one's  fist), 
the  plants  having  been  set  in  the  bench  on  the  2oth  of 
August,  and  the  seeds  sown  the  2oth  of  July.  For  my- 
self, particularly  where  such  high  temperatures  are 
wanted,  I  prefer  steam  heat.  A  melon  house  should 
receive  direct  sunlight  through  an  unshaded  roof.  In 
this  respect  melons  differ  from  the  English  or  frame  cu- 
cumbers, which  generally  thrive  best  under  a  shaded 
roof.  The  burning  of  the  foliage  by  the  sun  is  avoided 
by  the  use  of  glass  which  does  not  possess  waves  or  va- 
rying thicknesses  in  the  panes.  The  bubbles,  flaws  and 
"tear  drops"  in  glass  are  not  the  cause  of  burning. 
Fig.  3  (page  18)  shows  a  cross-section  of  the  house  in 
which  we  have  grown  melons,  and  which  is  also  shown 
in  Fig.  71.  We  have  used  benches  A,  B  and  c.  The 
lower  bench,  D,  has  too  little  head  room,  and,  being 
the  lowest,  it  is  too  cold  for  melons. 

The  soil  should  be  very  fertile.  We  have  had  good 
success  with  clay  sod,  which  had  not  been  manured, 
pulverized  and  mixed  thoroughly  with  about  one-quarter 
the  bulk  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  (but  fresh  or  rank 
manure  should  not  be  used).  Such  a  mixture  contains 
enough  quickly  available  nitrogen  to  start  the  plants  off 
strongly,  whilst  the  mechanical  condition  of  it  is  so  fria- 
ble that  all  the  mineral  elements  are  easily  obtained  by 
the  plants.  It  should  be  well  firmed,  after  it  is  placed  in 
the  bench,  by  pressing  it  down  with  the  hands  or  by 


208  MUSKMELON. 

pounding  with  a  brick.  An  occasional  light  application 
of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  worked  into  the  soil  will 
be  found  to  be  useful.  Very  much  of  the  ultimate  be- 
havior of  the  plants  will  depend  upon  the  proper  selec- 
tion and  mixing  of  the  soil,  and  one  who  has  had  no 
experience  in  forcing-house  work  will  rarely  obtain  the 
best  results  for  the  first  year  or  two  in  preparing  the 
earth.  The  mechanical  condition  of  this  soil  is  really 
more  important  than  its  fertility,  for  plant  food  may  be 
added  from  time  to  time,  but  the  soil  itself  cannot  be 
renewed  whilst  the  crop  is  growing  ;  and,  moreover, 
the  plant  food  is  of  little  avail  unless  the  soil  is  well 
drained  and  aerated,  not  too  loose  nor  too  hard.  It  is 
impossible  to  describe  this  ideal  soil  in  such  manner 
that  the  beginner  can  know  it.  Like  many  other  sub- 
jects of  handicraft,  it  can  be  known  only  by  experience. 
It  may  help  the  novice,  if  I  say  that  soil  which  will 
grow  good  melons  in  the  field  may  not  be  equally  good 
in  the  house.  Under  glass,  with  the  fierce  heats  in  full 
sunshine  and  the  strong  bottom  heat,  heavy  watering, 
as  compared  with  normal  rainfall,  is  essential,  whilst 
the  rapid  drainage  and  the  evaporation  from  both  the 
top  and  the  bottom  of  the  bed,  impose  conditions  which 
are  much  unlike  those  of  the  field.  But  the  ideal  con- 
dition of  the  soil  to  be  maintained  in  the  house  may  be 
likened  to  the  warm,  mellow,  rich  and  moist  seed-bed 
in  which  every  farmer  likes  to  sow  his  garden  seeds  in 
spring.  There  is  no  sub-soil  indoors  to  catch  the  drain- 
age, and  a  mellow  field  soil  is  often  so  loose  and  po- 
rous that  the  water  runs  through  the  benches  and  carries 
away  the  plant  food.  The  house  soil  must,  therefore, 
be  retentive,  but  then  there  is  danger  that  it  will  be- 
come puddled  or  sodden,  or  arrive  in  that  condition 
which  a  gardener  knows  as  a  "sour"  soil.  This  condi- 
tion may  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  the  stable  manure  to 
add  fiber  to  the  soil,  by  the  very  frequent  stirring  of  the 
immediate  surface  with  a  hand  weeder,  and  particularly 


THE    SOIL   AND    ITS    DEPTH.  2Og 

by  great  care  in  watering.  As  the  fruits  begin  to  ma- 
ture, water  the  house  very  sparingly.  "The  less  water 
given,  the  higher  will  be  the  flavor  of  the  fruit."*  Inas- 
much as  old  or  fruiting  plants  require  a  dry  house,  and 
young  plants  thrive  best  in  a  moister  atmosphere,  it  is 
not  advisable  to  attempt  to  grow  successive  plantings  of 
melons  simultaneously  in  the  same  house. 

Recent  English  instructions,  by  James  Barkham.f  give 
the  following  advice  about  melon  soil:  "The  top  spit 
from  an  old  pasture  is  what  I  prefer,  if  such  is  obtain- 
able, soil  such  as  a  good,  strong,  yellow  loam  being 
most  suitable.  This  should  be  broken  up  with  the  spade 
to  about  the  size  of  a  duck's  egg.  Do  not  use  any 
manure,  but  to  every  cartload  of  loam  add  two  bar- 
rowloads  of  old  mortar  or  plaster,  broken  up  and  run 
through  an  inch  mesh  sieve,  and  one  barrowload  of  half- 
decayed  leaf  soil,  turning  the  whole  two  or  three  times, 
so  as  to  thoroughly  mix  it.  Mistakes  are  often  made  in 
preparing  soil  for  melons  by  making  it  too  rich  by  add- 
ing manure,  which  encourages  a  too  luxuriant  growth. 
When  this  is  so,  it  is  an  impossibility  to  obtain  satisfac- 
tory results,  as  the  growth  becomes  so  succulent  that 
instead  of  the  fruit  setting  it  turns  yellow  and  decays." 

The  bench  should  not  be  above  7  inches  deep,  and 
perhaps  5  inches  is  better.  If  the  soil  is  too  deep,  the 
plants  grow  too  much,  and  are  late  in  coming  into  bear- 
ing. If  the  bench  is  4  feet  wide,  two  rows  of  plants, 
2}^  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  may  be  grown  ;  but  if  the 
bench  is  an  outside  one,  it  may  be  handier  in  training 
if  there  is  but  a  single  row,  with  the  plants  about  18 
inches  apart.  It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind,  how- 
ever, that  at  least  twice  the  number  of  plants  should  be 
set  in  the  beds  which  are  ultimately  to  grow  in  them, 


*  George  Mills,  A  Treatise  on  the  Cucumber  and  Melon,  73. 
t James  Barkham,   F.  R.   H.  S.,  in  Journal  of  the  Royal   Horticul- 
tural Society,  xx.  p.   i   (1896). 


MUSKMELON. 


for  there  will  almost  certainly  be  accidents  and  black 
aphis,  and  mildew,  and  damping-off.  When  the  plants 
have  stood  in  the  benches  two  or  three  weeks,  the  weak 
ones  may  be  pulled  out.  It  is  a  good  practice,  when 
but  a  single  row  is  planted,  to  set  the  plants  nearer  one 
side  than  the  other,  and  then  leave  the  wider  side  of 
the  bench  empty,  and  add  the  soil  to  it  as  the  plants 
need  it.  In  this  way  fresh  forage  is  obtained  for  the 
roots  in  soil  which  has  not  been  leached  of  its  plant 
food  nor  impaired  in  its  mechanical  condition  ;  and  the 
plants  will  make  a  steady  growth  from  start  to  finish, 
rather  than  an  over-vigorous  one  at  first.  If  there  is 
too  much  soil,  the  roots  spread  through  it  quickly  and 
the  plants  run  at  once  to  vine. 

Sowing    and    transplanting.  —  The     seeds     should     be 
sown  in  pots.     We  like  to  place  a  single  seed  in  a   2- 

inch  pot,  and  in 
about  three  weeks  — 
if  in  summer  or  fall 
—  to  transplant  the 
seedling  into  a  4-inch 
pot.  In  two  or  three 
weeks  more  the  plant 
may  be  set  perma- 
nently in  the  bench 
at  the  distances  indi- 
cated in  the  above 
paragraph.  It  is  a 
most  excellent  plan 
(as  explained  for  cu- 
cumbers) to  fill  the 
pots  only  half  full  of 
72.  Melon  plant  (in  4  inch  pot)  in  fit  con-  earth  or  compost  at 
dition  for  transplanting  into  bench.  nrst>  anc]  then  fin  tjle 

pot  up  as  soon  as  the  plant  overtops  the  rim.  The 
record  of  one  of  our  crops  is  as  follows  :  Seeds  sown 
August  4 ;  repotted  August  30 ;  transplanted  to  bench 


TRAINING    HOUSE    MELONS.  211 

September  10 ;  first  fruit  picked  December  6 ;  crop  all 
harvested  for  Christmas.*  If  a  crop  is  desired  on  the 
first  of  November,  the  seeds  should  be  sown  from  the 
middle  to  the  25th  of  July.  Fig.  72  (page  210)  shows 
the  size  of  a  good  melon  plant  as  it  leaves  a  4-inch  pot 
for  the  bench.  It  is  very  important  that  the  plants  should 
not  become  pot-bound,  nor  stunted  in  any  other  way.  It 
is  only  strong,  pushing  plants  which  give  satisfactory 
results. 

Training.  — The  plants  are  "  stopped  "—  the  tip  of  the 
leader  taken  off  —  as  soon  as  they  become  established  in 
the  bench.  This  pinching  in  is  practiced  for  the  purpose 
of  setting  the  plant  at  once  into  fruit- bearing,  and  to 
make  it  branch  into  three  or  four  main  shoots.  All  the 
weak  or  "fine"  shoots  are  removed  as  fast  as  they  ap- 
pear, so  that  the  plant  does  not  expend  its  energy  in  the 
making  of  useless  growth.  The  three  or  four  main  vines 
or  arms  are  trained  divergently  upon  a  wire  trellis,  and 
as  soon  as  a  shoot  reaches  the  top  of  the  trellis  —  4  or  5 
feet  —  it  is  stopped.  Some  growers  prefer  to  have  a 
leader  4  or  5  feet  long,  and  only  two  laterals  and  of 
about  the  same  length  as  the  leader.  The  trellis  is 
made  simply  of  light  wire,  strung  both  horizontally  and 
vertically,  with  the  strands  about  a  foot  apart  in  each 
direction.  To  these  wires  the  vines  and  fruits  are  tied 
with  raffia,  or  other  soft,  broad  cord.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  fruit  is  borne  along  the  main 
branches,  and  that  all  small  or  "blind"  growths  from 
the  main  stem  and  branches  should  be  nipped  out  as 
soon  as  they  start.  The  fruits  should  hang  free  from  the 
vine,  never  touching  the  ground.  It  will  generally  be 
necessary  to  hang  them  to  a  wire,  as  shown  in  Fig.  73 
(page  212),  by  making  a  sling  of  raffia,  or  resting  them 

*  It  should  be  said  that  the  forcing  season  at  Ithaca  is  unusually- 
cloudy,  and  that,  consequently,  these  dates  of  maturity  are  somewhat 
later  than  they  may  be  in  sunnier  regions. 

15   FORC. 


MUSKMELON. 


upon  a  little  swing  with  a  block  01  wood  for  the  bottom 
(as  in  Fig.  77,  page  217).  They  will  then  not  hang  too 
heavily  on  the  vine,  nor  break  off,  —  as  they  sometimes 
do  if  unsupported. 

Barkham,  whom  1  have  already  quoted,  writes  as  fol- 
lows of  the  training  of  melons:  "Train  the  plants  to 
a  neat  stake  until  the  trellis  is  reached ;  rub  off  all 
growths  as  they  show  from  the  stem  below  the  trellis  ; 
train  the  growths  right  and  left,  and  allow  the  leading 


7j-.     Melon  in  a  sling  of  raffia. 

stem  to  grow  up,  without  stopping,  to  within  a  foot  of 
the  top.  If  the  side  shoots  are  likely  to  be  crowded, 
pinch  out  some  at  first  sight,  as  the  melon  will  not  en- 
dure thinning  so  severely  as  the  cucumber ;  therefore  the 
growths  should  be  stopped  and  thinned  early  enough 
for  those  remaining  to  just  cover  the  trellis  with  well- 
developed  foliage,  and  no  more.  The  first  laterals 
which  are  formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  trellis  should  be 


TRAINING    AND    PRUNING. 


213 


stopped  at  the  second  or  third  leaf,  and  by  the  time  the 
sub-laterals  show  fruit  other  fruits  will  be  showing  on 
the  first  laterals  higher  up.  The  plants,  whether  grow- 
ing in  houses  or  pits,  should  be  gone  over  twice  or 
three  times  a  week  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  and  re- 
moving any  superfluous  growth,  so  as  to  allow  of  the 
principal  leaves  being  fully  exposed  to  the  light.  Stop 
at  the  first  joint  beyond  the  fruit,  and  remove  all  weak 
growths  and  laterals  not  showing  fruit. 


74.    Pistillate  flower  of  melon.    Full  size, 

"Overcrowding  is  the  greatest  evil  in  melon  culture, 
because  the  excessive  foliage  must  be  thinned,  and  its 
removal  results  in  exudation  from  the  wounds,  gan- 
grene sets  in,  and  the  affected  parts  perish  through 
'wet-rot'  (bacteria  and  bacillus  growths).  To  arrest 
these,  antiseptics  must  be  used ;  the  safest  is  quicklime, 
rubbing  it  well  into  the  affected  parts,  and  repeating  as 
necessary.  But  the  worst  effect  of  removing  a  large 


214 


MUSKMELON. 


quantity  of  growth  is  giving  a  check  to  the  fruit,  not 
unfrequently  causing  it  to  cease  swelling,  and  it  becomes 
hard  in  the  flesh  ;  fungoid  germs  fasten  upon  the  exu- 
dation, and  the  fruit  decays  when  it  should  ripen.  These 
disasters  are  generally  preventable  by  attending  to  the 
thinning  and  stopping  of  the  growths  in  time." 

Pollinating.  —  The  flowers  must  be  pollinated  by  hand. 
Melons  are  monoecious, — that  is,  the  sexes  are  borne 
in  separate  flowers  on  the  same  plant.  The  first  flowers 
to  open  are  always  males  or  staminates,  and  it  may  be 
two  weeks  after  these  first  blossoms  appear  that  the 
females  or  pistillates  begin  to  form.  There  is  nearly  al- 
ways a  much  larger  number  of  males  than  females,  even 
when  the  plant  is  in  full  bearing.  Fig.  74  (page  213)  is 
a  female  or  pistillate  flower,  natural  size.  It  is  at  once 
distinguished  by  the  little  melon,  or  ovary,  which  is 
borne  below  the  colored  portion  of  the  flower.  The 
male  or  staminate  flower  is  seen  in  Fig.  75.  It  has  no 
enlargement  or  melon  below,  and  the  flower  perishes 
within  a  day  or  so  after  it  opens.  Pollination  is  per- 
formed in  the  middle  of  the  day,  preferably  when  the 

house  is  dry  and 
the  sun  bright, 
so  that  the  pol- 
len is  easily  de- 
tached from  the 
male  flower.  A 
male  flower  is 
picked  off,  the 
petals  or  leaves 
stripped  back, 
and  the  central 
75.  Staminate  flower  cf  melon.  Full  size.  or  pollen-bearing 
column  is  then  inserted  into  a  pistillate  flower,  and  there 
allowed  to  remain.  That  is,  one  male  flower  is  used  to 
pollinate  one  female  flower,  unless  there  should  happen 
to  be  a  dearth  of  male  flowers,  in  which  case  two  or 


POLLINATION. — VARIETIES.  215 

three  female  flowers  may  be  dusted  with  one  male.  If 
the  house  is  too  cool  and  too  moist,  the  pollen  will  not 
form  readily,  and  there  are  some  varieties  which  are 
poor  in  pollen  when  grown  under  glass. 

Every  pistillate  or  female  flower,  except  the  first  two 
or  three  which  appear,  should  be  pollinated,  although  not 
more  than  four  or  five  on  each  plant  should  be  allowed 
to  perfect  fruit.  It  is  very  rare  that  even  half  of  the  fe- 
male flowers  show  a  disposition  to  set  fruit.  It  is  best 
to  ignore  the  very  first  flowers  which  appear,  for  if  one 
strong  fruit  is  set  much  in  advance  of  the  appearing  of 
other  pistillate  flowers,  it  will  usurp  the  energies  of  the 
plant,  and  the  later  fruits  will  be  likely  to  fail.  Upon  this 
point  Barkham  remarks:  "Never  commence  fertilizing 
the  blooms  until  there  is  a  sufficient  number  ready  at 
one  time,  or  within  an  interval  of  three  days,  to  furnish 
the  crop.  If  one  or  two  fruits  are  allowed  to  swell  off 
first,  the  later-set  fruit  will  not  swell,  but  die  away.  In- 
deed, if  only  one  fruit  is  set  in  advance  of  the  rest,  it 
will  monopolize  all  the  strength  of  the  plant,  and  pre- 
vent any  more  fruit  from  setting.  When  a  sufficient 
number  of  fruits  is  set,  select  the  largest  and  best 
shaped,  taking  off  all  small  and  misshapen  ones.  If 
large  fruits  are  wanted,  leave  from  four  to  six  fruits  to 
each  plant,  or  if  smaller  fruits  are  desired,  allow  eight 
or  ten  to  remain."  Mr.  Barkham  here  speaks  of  the 
spring  crop  (seeds  sown  in  January  or  later),  and  his 
plants  are  about  3  feet  apart  each  way. 

Varieties. —The  general  varieties  of  field  melons  do 
not  succeed  well  in  the  house.  We  have  tried  various 
common  melons  for  forcing,  but  the  only  one  which  was 
adapted  to  the  purpose  is  Emerald  Gem.  We  have  had 
the  best  success  with  the  English  frame  varieties,  particu- 
larly with  Blenheim  Orange.  All  these  melons  are  small 
(winter  specimens  weighing  from  itf  to  2  Ibs.),  with 
thin  netted  rinds,  and  a  red  or  white  flesh  of  high  quality. 

Blenheim  Orange  (Fig.   76,  page  216^  is  a  red-fleshed 


2T6 


MUSKMELON, 


VARIETIES    OF    FORCING    MELONS.  217 

melon  of  medium  to  medium-large  size,  with  a  very  ir- 
regularly and  variously  barred  rind,  scarcely  ribbed, 
short-oval  in  shape,  highly  perfumed,  and  of  the  very 
highest  quality.  This  has  been  our  favorite  winter  melon. 
In  midwinter  we  have  had  it  with  all  the  characteristic 
flavor  and  aroma  of  autumn  fully  developed.  It  is  also 
an  early  melon,  in  season  coming  in  just  after  Emerald 
Gem. 


/  Lockinge  melon 


Hero  of  Lockinge  (Fig.  77).  This  ripens  just  after 
Blenheim  Orange.  It  is  a  firm  melon  of  mediufri  size, 
with  white  flesh,  dark  in  color,  with  a  few  very  prom- 
inent irregular  bars,  not  ribbed,  globular,  the  flesh  ten- 
der and  excellent,  but  less  aromatic  than  Blenheim. 
This  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  frame  melons,  and  is 
very  striking  in  appearance. 


2l8  MUSKMELON. 

Lord  Beaconsfield  follows  Lockinge,  but  it  has  not 
been  valuable  with  us.  It  is  a  dull  green,  globular-con- 
ical, misshapen  melon,  without  ribs  or  netted  markings, 
and  a  soft,  green  flesh,  which  is  rather  poor. 

Little  Heath  is  a  melon  of  medium  size,  slightly  ob- 
long, dark  lemon  yellow,  with  no  bars  or  markings ; 


78.     Masterpiece  melon 

flesh  white  and  thin,  only  fair  in  quality  ;  productive,  and 
the  crop  is  uniform  in  ripening. 

Masterpiece  (Fig.  78).  A  very  attractive  melon,  with 
distinct  ribs  or  segments,  and  a  closely  and  prominently 
reticulated  rind  ;  globular-oval,  of  medium  size,  becom- 
ing yellow,  with  a  thick  and  very  rich  red  flesh.  One  of 


VARIETIES    OF    FORCING    MELONS.  2IQ 

the  very  best,  ripening  ten  days  or  two  weeks  after  Blen- 
heim Orange. 

Empress.  A  globular  melon  of  rather  small  size,  rib- 
less,  but  marked  with  very  coarse  angular  bars ;  flesh 
pale  orange,  of  good  quality,  but  occasionally  inclined  to 
be  somewhat  acid.  A  pretty  little  melon,  with  curious 
markings,  ripening  with  Masterpiece.  Less  desirable  than 
Blenheim  or  Masterpiece. 

Monarch.  A  good-sized  melon,  with  sparse  markings, 
except  about  the  blossom  end ;  dull  yellow  in  color,  not 
ribbed ;  flesh  described  as  thick  and  solid,  red,  of  ex- 
cellent flavor.  Ripens  with  Masterpiece.  Our  stock  of 
this  melon  appears  to  have  been  mixed,  and  we  have 
also  grown  a  cross  with  Lockinge.  Because  of  its  vari- 
able character  and  somewhat  unattractive  appearance,  we 
prize  it  less  than  some  other  varieties ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  a  pure  stock  would  have  given  more  satisfactory 
results.  From  one  stock  we  got  green-fleshed  fruits  of 
best  quality.  We  do  not  know  which  is  the  true  Monarch. 

Other  varieties  we  have  tested  as  follows :  Sutton 
A  i,  good  size  (a  fruit  picked  January  26  weighed  2  Ibs. 
3  ozs.),  very  prominently  and  beautifully  barred,  the  flesh 
orange,  quality  of  the  very  best ;  Perfection,  slightly  fur- 
rowed and  scarcely  netted,  green  outside,  the  flesh  green, 
but  good  and  rich,  though  not  so  musky  and  aromatic 
as  Masterpiece ;  Sutton  Scarlet,  flesh  red,  of  excellent 
quality  ;  Imperial,  a  rather  soft,  green-fleshed  melon, 
but  the  best  variety  (in  a  lot  of  a  dozen  or  more) 
tested  in  the  season  of  1895-6  (best  fruit  weighed  i  Ib. 
14  ozs.);  Windsor  Castle,  large  (specimen  picked  Janu- 
ary 20  weighed  2  Ibs.  6  ozs),  with  no  ridges  or  bars  (oc- 
casionally a  vestige  of  bars'),  flesh  green,  quality  fair  to 
good.  Amongst  our  own  crosses,  Masterpiece  X  Lock- 
inge is  perhaps  the  best.  It  has  a  pale-red  or  sometimes 
lemon-colored  flesh,  and  is  somewhat  variable  in  quality, 
but  generally  very  excellent.  A  sample  of  this  fruit  was 
sent  to  a  connoisseur  on  the  isth  of  January,  who  wrote 


220  MUSKMELON. 

as  follows:  "The  melon  was  by  far  the  most  toothsome 
article  that  has  passed  my  lips  this  winter.  Its  flavor 
carried  me  back  to  early  fall,  and  made  me  doubt  my 
senses  when  I  looked  out  of  the  window  and  saw  snow 
on  the  ground,  and  saw  by  the  calendar  that  we  had 
begun  the  new  year.  I  am  greatly  obliged  to  you  for 
being  able  to  satisfy  a  summer  taste  in  midwinter." 

The  varieties,  then,  which  we  chiefly  recommend  for 
forcing,  are  Blenheim  Orange,  Hero  of  Lockinge,  Mas- 
terpiece, Sutton  A  i,  Imperial,  with,  perhaps,  Emerald 
Gem  for  early. 

Yields  and  markets.  —  A  good  crop  of  melons  in  the 
winter  months  is  an  average  of  two  to  three  fruits  to  the 
plant.  This  means  that  some  plants  must  bear  four  or 
five  melons,  for  there  will  almost  certainly  be  some  plants 
upon  which  no  fruit  can  be  made  to  set.  The  larger  the 
fruits,  the  fewer  each  plant  can  mature.  Four  or  five 
pounds  of  fruit  to  the  vine  is  all  that  can  reasonably  be 
expected  after  November.  In  fall  (that  is,  early  Novem- 
ber or  earlier)  and  late  spring  crops,  the  grower  should 
expect  four  to  five  melons  to  the  plant  (.with  the  plants 
2  feet  apart  each  way) ;  this  is  about  all  that  'one  can 
obtain,  even  from  small  varieties  like  Emerald  Gem.  Of 
the  larger  sorts,  like  Blenheim  Orange,  three  or  four 
fruits  is  a  good  crop.  In  midwinter,  we  have  not  yet 
been  able  to  average  above  two  good  melons  to  the  plant, 
at  2  feet  apart  each  way.  The  fruits  will  continue  to  ripen 
for  a  week  after  they  are  picked.  Ordinarily,  if  seeds 
of  Emerald  Gem,  Blenheim  Orange,  Hero  of  Lockinge, 
or  other  early  varieties,  are  sown  August  first,  fruits  may 
be  expected  early  in  November.  If  the  fruits  are  desired 
in  January,  there  should  be  two  or  three  weeks'  delay 
in  sowing.  All  plants  grow  slowly  in  the  short,  dark 
days  of  midwinter.  The  novice  should  not  attempt  to 
secure  fruits  later  than  Christmas  time,  for  the  growing 
of  melons  should  be  undertaken  cautiously  at  first. 

The    market    for    forced    muskmelons   will    always   be 


INSECTS  AND  DISORDERS.  221 

limited.  These  fruits  are  in  every  sense  luxuries.  I 
doubt  if  one  could  grow  them  in  winter  for  less  than  $i 
each,  unless  he  did  it  upon  a  large  scale.  Good  musk- 
melons  in  midwinter  would  bring  almost  any  price,  if 
placed  before  the  right  kind  of  consumers. 

Insects  and  diseases. —  There  have  been  three  serious 
insect  enemies  to  our  winter  melons  — black  aphis,  mites 
(Tetranychus  bimaculatiis) ,  and  mealy-bug.  The  best 
method  of  dealing  with  these  pests  is  to  keep  them  off. 
It  is  a  poor  gardener  who  is  always  looking  for  some 
easy  means  of  killing  insects.  If  the  plants  are  carefully 
watched  and  every  difficulty  met  at  its  beginning,  there 
will  be  no  occasion  for  worrying  about  bugs.  A  fumi- 
gation with  tobacco  smoke,  or  with  the  extract,  twice  a 
week  will  keep  away  the  aphis ;  but  if  the  fumigation 
is  delayed  until  after  the  lice  have  curled  up  the  leaves, 
the  gardener  will  likely  have  a  serious  task  in  overcom- 
ing the  pests,  and  the  plants  may  be  irreparably  injured 
in  the  meantime. 

For  mites,  keep  the  house  and  plants  as  moist  as 
possible.  At  all  events,  do  not  allow  the  plants  to  be- 
come so  dry  that  they  wilt,  for  this  neglect  will  sap  the 
vitality  out  of  any  plant,  and  it  falls  an  easy  prey  to  ene- 
mies. When  the  mites  first  appear  upon  the  foliage, —  if 
the  gardener  should  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  them, 
—  knock  the  pests  off  with  a  hard  stream  of  water  from 
the  hose,  or  pick  the  affected  leaves  and  burn  them.  If 
the  plants  become  seriously  involved,  so  that  all  the 
leaves  are  speckled-grey  from  the  work  of  the  minute 
pests  on  the  under  side,  then  destroy  the  plants.  Melon 
plants  which  have  become  seriously  checked  from  the 
attacks  of  insects  or  fungi  are  of  no  further  use,  and 
they  may  as  well  be  destroyed  first  as  last. 

Mealy-bugs  are  easily  kept  off  by  directing  a  fine, 
hard  stream  against  them,  when  watering  the  house.- 
When  these  bugs  first  appear,  they  usually  congregate 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  a  strong  stream  of  water 


222  MUSKMELON. 

greatly  disturbs  their  domestic  arrangements.  In  one  of 
our  melon  experiments,  when  the  mealy-bug  got  a  foot- 
hold, we  picked  them  off  with  pincers.  We  went  over 
the  vines  three  times,  at  intervals,  and  eradicated  the 
pests;  and  the  labor  of  it  —  the  vines  were  small --was 
much  less  than  one  would  suppose. 

There  are  two  troublesome  fungous  disorders  of  frame 
melons.  One  is  the  mildew  (Erysiphe  Cichoracearum,  or 
Oidium  of  earlier  writers),  which  appears  as  whitish 
mold-like  patches  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves. 
It  also  attacks  cucumbers.  It  may  be  kept  in  check  by 
evaporating  sulphur  in  the  house,  as  described  on  pages 
91  and  92.  It  is  imperative  that  the  sulphur  do  not 
take  fire,  for  burning  sulphur  is  fatal  to  plants. 

The  second  fungus  is  canker,  or  damping-off  (see 
page  84).  This  usually  attacks  the  plants  after  they  have 
attained  some  size  in  the  benches,  sometimes  even  when 
they  are  in  fruit.  The  vine  stops  growing,  turns  yellow, 
and  finally  begins  to  wilt.  If  the  plant  is  examined  at 
the  surface  of  the  ground  and  just  beneath  the  soil, 
the  stem  will  be  found  to  be  brown,  and  perhaps  some- 
what decayed,  the  bark  sloughs  off,  and  sometimes  deep 
ulcers  are  eaten  into  the  tissue.  In  this  stage  of  the 
disease  nothing  can  be  done  to  save  the  plant.  The 
treatment  must  be  a  preventive  one.  Keep  the  soil 
dry  about  the  stem.  Do  not  apply  water  directly  at 
the  root.  In  order  to  keep  the  soil  dry,  it  is  an  ex- 
cellent plan  to  hill  up  the  plant  slightly.  It  is  also 
well  to  strew  clean,  white  sand  about  the  plant  to  keep 
the  surface  of  the  soil  and  the  stem  dry.  If  a  little  sul- 
phur is  mixed  with  the  soil  about  the  plant,  the  spread 
of  the  fungus  will  be  checked.  Some  persons  sprinkle 
lime  about  the  plant  to  check  the  fungus. 

A  most  serious  difficulty  once  appeared  upon  our  mel- 
ons, and  which  we  have  called  the  house-blight  (Fig.  79, 
page  223).  The  first  visible  injury  to  the  leaves  was  the 
appearing  of  yellowish  fungous-like  spots  or  patches  on 


HOUSE-BLIGHT    OF    THE    MELON. 


223 


the  leaves.  These  patches  soon  become  dead,  dry  and 
translucent,  and  are  often  very  numerous,  as  seen  on 
the  upper  leaf  in  the  picture.  Finally  the  leaf  wilts  and 


79.    House-blight  of  melon.     The  upper  leaf  just  showing  the  at- 
tack (in  the  spots),  the  lower  one  dead  as  it  hangs  on  the  vine. 


224  MUSKMELON. 

droops,  and  then  shrivels  and  hangs  on  the  stem,  as 
seen  in  the  lower  leaf  in  Fig.  79.  So  far  as  our 
botanists  have  been  able  to  determine,  this  disorder 
is  not  due  to  any  fungus  or  parasite.  It  is  a  physio- 
logical disease.  Fortunately,  the  cause  of  this  attack 
was  not  far  to  seek.  The  melons  were  in  a  perfect 
state  of  health  and  vigor  when,  early  in  October,  the 
gardener  and  myself  went  away  for  a  few  days.  The 
house  was  left  in  charge  of  an  attendant.  The  weather 
came  off  cloudy  and  damp.  The  house  was  over-wa- 
tered, the  plants  syringed,  and  the  foliage  went  through 
the  night  dripping  wet.  The  next  day  the  house  did 
not  dry  off.  The  second  day,  when  I  returned,  I  had 
fears  that  dire  results  would  follow,  although  the  foliage 
looked  well.  I  had  the  temperature  raised  and  the 
house  dried  off.  In  two  or  three  days  the  spots  began 
to  appear  on  the  foliage,  and  in  spite  of  all  our  efforts 
a  third  or  more  of  the  leaves  were  ruined  and  the  plants 
seriously  checked.  What  promised  to  be  the  best  crop 
of  melons  which  we  had  ever  raised  turned  out  to  be 
almost  a  failure. 


CHAPTER    XII. 


MISCELLANEOUS    WARM    PLANTS. 

THERE  are  various  crops  of  secondary  importance 
which  thrive  at  temperatures  which  are  acceptable  to 
tomatoes,  cucumbers  and  melons.  The  details  of  the 
management  of  the  leading  ones  of  these  crops  are 
here  set  forth. 

It  is  probable  that  okra  may  be  forced  with  profit, 
for  there  is  a  good  demand  for  the  product  in  the  New 
York  market.  I  do  not  know  that  any  one  has  had  any 
practical  experience  with  it  as  a  forcing  crop,  but  it  is 
now  being  experimented  upon  at  Cornell. 

Squashes  and  their  kin  can  be  grown  under  glass, 
but  it  is  not  probable  that  they  can  be  made  a  com- 
mercial success  (see  page  6). 

Green  corn  has  been  tried  in  a  desultory  way  at  Cor- 
nell, but  nothing  has  yet  been  made  of  it. 


Bush  beans  are  easily  forced,  and  they  constitute  one 
of  the  best  secondary  winter  crops.  We  ordinarily  grow 
them  upon  cucumber,  melon,  or  other  benches  while 
waiting  for  the  cucumbers  or  melons  to  attain  sufficient 
size  in  the  pots  for  transplanting.  We  also  grow  them 
in  8-inch  pots  or  in  boxes,  placing  them  here  and  there 
in  the  houses,  wherever  there  is  sufficient  room  and 
light.  Beans  will  be  ready  for  picking  in  six  or  eight 
weeks  after  sowing,  in  midwinter.  Their  demands  are 
simple,  yet  exacting.  They  must  have  a  rich,  moist 
(225) 


226 


MISCELLANEOUS    WARM    PLANTS. 


soil,  strong  bottom  heat,  and  the  more  light  the  better. 
We  cover  our  benches  with  about  8  inches  of  soil,  the 
lower  third  of  which  is  a  layer  of  old  sods.  The  top 
soil  we  make  by  adding  about  one  part  of  well-rotted 
manure  to  two  parts  of  rich  garden  loam.  The  soil 
must  never  be  allowed  to  become  dry,  and  especial 
care  must  be  taken  to  apply  enough  water  to  keep  the 
bottom  of  the  soil  moist,  and  yet  not  enough  to  make 
the  surface  muddy.  With  the  strong  bottom  heat  which 
we  use  for  beans,  the  soil  is  apt  to  become  dry  beneath. 


'    »&*?' 


We  once  had  a  good  illustration  in  our  houses  of  the 
accelerating  influence  of  bottom  heat.  One  bench,  to 
which  no  bottom  heat  was  applied  for  the  first  three 
weeks,  gave  beans  fit  for  picking  on  December  27.  On 
another  bench  in  the  same  house,  to  which  heat  was 
applied  from  the  first,  and  upon  which  the  same  variety 
was  sown  at  the  same  time,  the  second  sowing  of  beans 
had  been  up  for  nearly  two  weeks  at  that  date.  The 
lack  of  bottom  heat  delayed  the  crop  fully  four  weeks. 
The  house  should  be  light,  and  the  benches  should  be 
near  the  glass.  A  good  bench  of  beans  is  seen  in  Fig.  80. 


BEANS  UNDER  GLASS.  227 

If  the  benches  are  unoccupied,  the  beans  may  be 
planted  on  them  directly,  but  if  another  crop  is  on 
them,  the  beans  should  be  started  in  pots.  We  like  to 
plant  two  or  three  beans  in  a  3-inch  rose  pot,  and 
transplant  to  the  benches  just  as  soon  as  the  roots  fill 
the  pot. 

The  night  temperature  of  a  bean  house  ought  not  to 
fall  below  60°.  After  the  blossoms  appear,  give  a  lib- 
eral application  of  liquid  manure  every  five  or  six  days. 
The  growth  of  beans  should  be  continuous  and  rapid 
from  the  first,  in  order  to  secure  a  large  crop  of  tender 
pods.  The  bean  is  self-fertile,  and  therefore  no  pains 
is  necessary  to  ensure  pollination,  as  in  the  case  of  to- 
matoes, and  some  other  indoor  crops.  The  house  may 
be  kept  moist  by  sprinkling  the  walks  on  bright  days. 

The  essentials  of  a  forcing  bean  are  compact  and 
rapid  growth,  earliness,  productiveness,  and  long,  straight 
and  symmetrical  pods.  The  Sion  House  answers  these 
requirements  the  best  of  any  variety  which  we  have  yet 
tried.  It  has  green  pods  and  party-colored  beans.  The 
cut  (Fig  80,  page  226)  shows  with  exactness  an  aver- 
age bench  of  Sion  House.  English  growers  recommend 
the  Green  Flageolet,  and  we  have  had  good  success  with 
it ;  but  it  is  about  a  week  later  than  Sion  House,  and 
it  possesses  no  points  of  superiority.  German  Wax  ( Dwarf 
German  Black  Wax}  forces  well,  but  the  pods  are  too 
short  and  too  crooked.  It  is  also  particularly  liable  to 
the  attacks  of  the  pod  fungus.  Newtown  (Pride  of  New- 
town}  is  too  large  and  straggling  in  growth. 

For  market,  the  beans  are  sorted  and  tied  in  bunches 
of  50  pods,  as  shown  in  Fig.  81  (page  228).  These 
bunches  bring  varying  prices,  but  from  25  to  50  cents 
may  be  considered  an  average.  At  these  figures,  with 
a  good  demand,  forced  beans  pay  well.  Only  two  or 
three  pickings  of  beans  can  be  made  profitable  from  one 
crop ;  and  in  some  cases  all  the  marketable  crop  is  gath- 
ered at  one  time.  Much  of  the  success  of  bean  forcing, 

l6  FORC. 


228 


MISCELLANEOUS  WARM  PLANTS. 


as  of  all  other  winter  gardening,  consists  in  having  new 
plants  ready  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  ones.  As  soon 
as  the  old  plants  are  removed,  fork  up  the  beds,  add  a 
liberal  quantity  of  strong,  short  manure,  and  replant  im- 
mediately. 

The  enemies  are  few,  red  spider  and  mite  being  the 
worst,  and  these  are  kept  in  check  by  maintaining  a 
moist  atmosphere. 


s  ready  for  market. 


EGGPLANT.* 

The  possibility  of  forcing  eggplants  successfully  was 
suggested  by  a  crop  which  was  grown  under  glass  in 
one  of  the  market  gardens  near  Boston,  in  the  spring  of 
1891.  These  plants  were  not  grown  with  the  intention  of 
forcing  them  ;  but  as  the  greenhouse  was  vacant  at  the 
time  the  main  crop  of  eggplants  was  set  out  of  doors, 
it  was  filled  with  plants  taken  from  the  same  lot  as  those 
set  in  the  open.  The  beds  in  which  they  were  planted 
were  solid  ;  that  is,  the  prepared  soil  rested  upon  the 
natural  surface  of  the  ground,  forming  a  layer  from  12  to 
15  inches  in  depth.  During  the  preceding  winter  these 
beds  had  served  for  growing  lettuce,  and  they  had  con- 
quently  been  well  enriched  with  stable  manure,  a  fertil- 
izer which  is  especially  effective  in  the  production  of 

*E.  G.  Lodeman,  Bulletin  96,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bulletin  26  of 
this  Station  is  an  account  of  the  cultivation  of  eggplants  in  the  field. 


BEHAVIOR    OF    EGGPLANTS.  22Q 

rapid  growth.  In  July,  when  the  plants  grown  under 
glass  were  compared  with  those  planted  in  the  open 
ground,  an  astonishing  difference  could  be  observed. 
Those  set  in  the  house  were  fully  twice  as  large  as  the 
others ;  the  leaves  were  larger  and  the  stems  thicker 
than  those  generally  found  in  the  gardens  of  this  lati- 
tude, and  the  abundance  of  healthy  foliage  was  ample 
proof  that  the  plants  were  subjected  to  conditions  ex- 
tremely favorable  to  their  growth. 

Another  interesting  point  was  soon  noticed.  Al- 
though the  plants  were  blossoming  very  freely,  still 
comparatively  little  fruit  had  set,  and  it  appeared  as  if 
the  entire  energies  of  the  plants  had  been  directed  to- 
wards the  production  of  foliage  at  the  expense  of  the 
fruit.  This  condition  may  perhaps  be  ascribed  to  two 
causes.  Extreme  activity  of  the  vegetative  functions  of 
plants  is  frequently  carried  on  at  the  expense  of  fruit 
production  ;  this  fact  is  commonly  illustrated  by  young 
fruit  trees  which  blossom  sometimes  several  years  be- 
fore they  set  fruit.  The  growth  of  the  eggplant  men- 
tioned above  was  sufficiently  luxuriant  to  suggest  the 
possibility  of  its  having  some  effect  upon  the  fruiting 
powers  of  the  plants.  The  second  and  perhaps  most 
probable  cause  of  this  unsatisfactory  fruiting  may  have 
been  imperfect  pollination.  Insects,  and  especially  bees, 
were  not  working  so  freely  in  the  house  as  outside,  and 
later  experience  has  shown  very  clearly  that  in  order  to 
get  a  satisfactory  crop  from  eggplants  grown  under  glass 
thorough  pollination  must  be  practiced.  The  foliage  was 
so  dense  that  the  flowers  were  for  the  most  part  hidden. 
In  such  a  position  they  were  necessarily  surrounded  by 
a  comparatively  damp  atmosphere,  especially  when 
borne  upon  branches  that  were  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  this  would  still  further  tend  to  interfere  with 
the  free  transfer  of  pollen  by  any  natural  agencies.  Un- 
der such  conditions  a  profitable  yield  could  scarcely  be 
expected ;  yet  when  carefully  observed,  the  plants 


23O  MISCELLANEOUS    WARM    PLANTS. 

proved  to  be  so  full  of  suggestions  regarding  the  proper 
methods  of  treating  them  that  they  should  have  repaid 
the  time  given  to  their  cultivation  by  a  plentiful  harvest  of 
ideas,  if  not  of  fruits.  The  eggplant  will  generally  set 
fruit  without  the  assistance  of  pollen,  but  the  fruit  never 
attains  its  normal  size.  Fig. 
82  shows  a  non-pollinated 
fruit  which  has  reached  the 
limit  of  its  size.  The  reader 
will  be  able  to  measure  its 
size  by  noticing  that  the  calyx 
covers  almost  half  of  it.  The 
fruit  from  which  this  picture 
was  made  was  about  4  inches 
long. 

Acting  on  the  above  hints, 
several  attempts  have  been 
made  to  grow  eggplants  in 
our  forcing-houses,  with  the 
object,  however,  of  fruiting 
them  out  of  season.  The  first 
lot  of  seed  was  sown  August 
30,  1893.  It  embraced  the 
82.  Non-pollinated  f run.  following  varieties  :  Black  Pe- 
kin,  New  York  Improved,  Early  Dwarf  Purple,  Round 
Purple,  and  Long  White.  The  seed  was  sown  about 
y%  of  an  inch  deep  in  rich  potting  soil.  The  flats,  or 
shallow  boxes,  which  contained  the  seed  were  placed  in 
a  warm  house,  and  the  after-treatment  was  very  similar 
to  that  commonly  followed  in  the  growing  of  tomatoes. 

The  seedlings  required  pricking  out  about  four  weeks 
after  the  seed  was  sown.  They  were  set  in  2>2-inch 
pots,  where  they  remained  until  November  14,  when 
they  were  shifted  into  4-inch  pots.  On  December  17, 
or  nearly  16  weeks  from  the  time  of  seed  sowing,  the 
plants  had  filled  these  pots  with  roots,  and  they  were 
again  shifted,  but  this  time  into  benches.  They  were 


EXPERIMENTS    WITH    EGGPLANTS.  23! 

set  2  feet  apart  each  way.  The  soil  was  about  6  inches 
deep,  and  different  in  character  in  each  of  the  two 
benches  used.  One  bench  had  been  filled  with  a  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  potting  soil  and  manure  from  a 
spent  mushroom  bed.  This  formed  a  very  open  and 
rich  soil,  which  appeared  to  be  capable  of  producing  a 
strong  growth.  The  second  bench  received  a  rich, 
sandy  loam,  which  had  previously  been  composted  with 
about  one-fourth  its  bulk  of  stable  manure.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  house  was  that  usually  maintained  in 
growing  plants  requiring  a  considerable  amount  of  heat ; 
during  the  night  the  mercury  fell  to  65°  or  60°,  and  in 
the  day  time  it  stood  at  7o°-75°.  In  bright  weather  the 
house  was  still  warmer. 

Considerable  care  was  exercised  in  watering  the 
plants,  the  soil  being  kept  somewhat  dry  :  when  grown 
out  of  doors,  eggplants  withstand  drought  so  well  that 
such  a  course  seemed  advisable  when  growing  them 
under  glass.  As  the  plants  increased  in  size  the  leaves 
shaded  the  soil,  and  an  occasional  thorough  watering 
maintained  an  excellent  condition  of  moisture  in  the  bed 
filled  with  the  loam.  In  addition,  the  soil  was  stirred 
with  a  hand  weeder  when  necessary. 

For  some  time  all  the  varieties  in  each  bench  ap- 
peared to  be  doing  uniformly  well,  but  the  plants  set  in 
the  sandy  loam  made  a  stronger  growth  and  appeared 
to  be  more  vigorous.  This  was  especially  noticeable  in 
Early  Dwarf  Purple  and  New  York  Improved.  The  first 
bloom  appeared  on  the  former  during  the  last  week  in 
December,  and  on  the  3d  of  January,  1894,  several  plants 
showed  flowers  that  were  well  opened.  These  were 
hand  pollinated,  and  they  set  fruit  freely.  On  February 
15  some  of  these  fruits  were  zy2  inches  long,  the  plants 
still  growing  well  and  producing  many  blossoms.  It 
was  at  this  time  that  the  first  flowers  of  Black  Pekin 
appeared,  but  New  York  Improved  had  not  yet  pro- 
duced any,  although  it  was  making  a  strong  growth. 


232  MISCELLANEOUS      WARM      PLANTS. 

Round    Purple    and    Long    White    were    making   a   very 
slow  and  weak  growth. 

A  plant  of  Early  Dwarf  Purple  that  was  photographed 
May  29  is  shown  in  Fig.  83.  It  was  bearing  at  this  time 
21  fruits  of  varying  sixes,  and  appeared  to  be  strong 
enough  to  mature  fruits  from  buds  that  were  still  form- 
ing. The  larger  fruits  were  fully  4  inches  in  diameter, 
and  nearly  6  inches  long.  They  were  not  removed  as 
soon  as  grown,  as  should  be  done  in  order  to  get  as 


83.    Early  Dwarf  Purple  eggplant  in  winter. 

large  a  yield  as  possible,  and  for  this  reason  the  product 
of  the  plant  is  the  more  remarkable.  All  the  fruits  did 
not  attain  the  size  mentioned  above,  for  the  crop  was 
too  heavy  for  the  plant  to  mature  it  properly  ;  neither 
were  all  the  plants  of  this  variety  equally  prolific,  al- 
though their  yield  in  many  cases  closely  approached 
that  shown  in  the  illustration.  This  variety  proved  to 
be  by  far  the  most  promising  of  those  grown  for  forcing 
purposes,  and  it  appears  to  be  capable  of  producing 


VARIETIES    OF    EGGPLANTS. 


233 


crops  which  rival  those  grown  out  of  doors.  It  is  also 
the  earliest  variety  tested,  a  point  which  is  of  the  great- 
est importance.  The  eggplant  is  slow  in  coming  to 
maturity,  even  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances. 
The  above  photograph  was  taken  nine  months  from  the 
time  of  sowing  the  seed,  but  a  cutting  of  fruit  might 
have  been  made  fully  six  weeks  earlier.  This  set  fruit 
more  freely  than  any  other  variety,  and  in  nearly  every 
desirable  respect  was  superior  to  them.  This  Early 


84.    Sprays  of  Early  Dwarf  Purple  eggplant. 

Dwarf  Purple,  as  grown  in  the  field,  is  shown  in  Fig.  84. 
New  York  Improved  was  a  very  strong  grower,  and 
produced  large,  handsome  fruits.  Unfortunately,  but 
few  could  be  obtained  from  a  plant,  and  the  total  yield 
was,  therefore,  comparatively  small,  only  four  or  five 
maturing  on  the  best  plants.  It  is  also  considerably 
later  than  the  Early  Dwarf  Purple.  The  New  York  Im- 


234 


MISCELLANEOUS     WARM     PLANTS. 


proved,  as  grown  out  of  doors,  is  seen  in  Fig.  85.  In 
the  house  the  plant  may  be  expected  to  be  taller  in  pro- 
portion to  its  breadth. 

Black  Pekin  on  the  whole  closely  resembled  the  pre- 
ceding, especially  in  the  manner  of  its  growth.  But  it 
set  scarcely  any  fruit,  and  that  was  so  late  that  none 
was  matured  before  10  months  from  the  time  of  seed- 
sowintr. 


85.    Field-grown  plant  of  New   York  Improved  eggplant. 

Long  White  proved  to  be  a  weak  grower  of  very 
slender  habit.  It  was  also  very  late,  the  fruits  being 
scarcely  over  2  inches  in  length  May  29.  The  plants  of 
this  variety  were  slightly  checked  when  young,  and  this 
may  have  had  a  certain  influence  in  delaying  the  ma- 
turity of  the  crop,  although  the  effect  was  probably  not 
very  great.  One  desirable  feature  of  this  variety  is  its 
smooth  foliage,  which  appeared  to  be  unfavorable  for 
the  development  and  persistence  of  some  of  the  insects 


VARIETIES    OF    EGGPLANTS.  235 

that  attack  greenhouse  plants.  But  the  lateness  of  the 
variety  and  the  few  fruits  produced  by  it  will  prevent  it 
from  being  profitably  grown  under  glass. 

Round  Purple  proved  to  be  the  most  unsatisfactory 
grower.  All  the  plants  showed  symptoms  of  being  in 
unfavorable  quarters,  and  the  test  with  this  variety  re- 
sulted in  almost  total  failure. 

Later  attempts  to  force  eggplants  have  been  made, 
although  no  duplicate  of  the  above  experiment  has  been 
planned.  The  crops  were  started  later  in  the  season, 
when  more  sunlight  and  heat  were  present.  These 
trials  have  thrown  light  upon  some  of  the  doubtful  points 
of  former  experiments,  and  have  shown  that  it  is  possi- 
ble to  force  eggplants  in  winter.  New  York  Improved 
eggplants  are  seen  on  the  side  in  Fig.  71  (page  206). 
The  seeds  for  these  were  sown  July  20,  the  young  plants 
shifted  to  3-inch  pots  on  August  28,  and  planted  in  the 
bench  September  13.  When  the  picture  was  taken 
(October  3)  flower  buds  were  just  beginning  to  show. 
The  plants  are  standing  18  inches  apart  each  way  in  al- 
ternate rows,  which  is  too  close 

One  of  the  results  obtained  is  of  special  interest  in 
this  connection.  Some  Early  Dwarf  Purple  plants  were 
started  early  in  August,  and  some  of  the  seedlings  were 
grown  in  houses  in  which  different  degrees  of  tempera- 
ture were  maintained.  The  plants  grown  in  an  interme- 
diate or  moderately  warm  house  made  but  little  growth, 
and  were  soon  stunted  and  worthless.  This  showed  con- 
clusively that  eggplants  require  a  high  temperature  for 
their  rapid  and  vigorous  development.  Other  plants 
were  placed  in  each  of  two  warm  houses,  one  of  which 
was  shaded  by  means  of  a  thin  coat  of  whitewash  upon 
the  glass.  The  plants  in  the  other  house  were  exposed 
to  direct  sunlight,  and  they  were  also  subjected  to  a 
bottom  heat  of  scarcely  5  degrees.  Although  the  air 
temperature  of  the  two  houses  was  practically  identical, 
the  plants  receiving  the  sunlight  grew  fully  twice  as  fast 


236  MISCELLANEOUS     WARM     PLANTS. 

as  the  others,  and  had  open  blossoms  before  those  in 
the  shaded  house  jhowed  any  buds.  When  some  of 
the  latter  were  removed  into  the  same  favored  position, 
they  very  soon  showed  a  benefit  from  the  change.  In 
this  way  the  plants  themselves  emphasized  the  neces- 
sity of  plenty  of  sunshine  for  their  development  in  win- 
ter quarters;  anu  '~:~  amount  of  bottom  heat,  from 
4  to  6  degrees,  ; .  aiso  very  beneficial,  the  air  tempera- 
ture at  the  same  time  being  that  of  a  warm  house. 

Eggplants  designed  for  forcing  should  never  be 
stunted.  An  *u  to  prevent  this  condition  is 

a  soil  which  jpen  and  still  rich  in  available  nitrogen. 
A  rich,  sandy  loam,  in  which  all  the  ingredients  are 
well  rotted,  is  preferable  to  one  having  the  manure  in 
an  undecayed  condition.  The  latter  is  too  open,  and 
is  more  difficult  to  maintain  in  a  proper  supply  of 
moisture.  The  soil  should  be  sufficiently  open  to  afford 
good  drainage,  but  not  so  coarse  that  it  dries  out  very 
rapidly.  The  bench  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  the 
article  as  containing  manure  from  a  spent  mushroom 
bed  did  not  prove  so  satisfactory  as  the  one  containing 
the  sandy  loam,  largely  because  it  was  more  difficult  to 
manage. 

Another  point  which  should  not  be  overlooked  in 
forcing  eggplants  is  the  pollination  of  the  flowers.  This 
is  most  satisfactorily  done  by  hand,  the  small  number 
of  insects  found  in  greenhouses  during  the  colder 
months  being  of  very  little  use  in  this  respect.  The 
work  can  be  done  rapidly  by  means  of  a  small,  flat 
piece  of  metal,  such  as  can  be  made  by  flattening  the 
point  of  a  pin  with  a  hammer,  and  then  inserting  the 
other  end  into  a  small  stick,  which  will  serve  as  a  han- 
dle. Such  a  spatula  is  also  very  convenient  in  nearly  all 
kinds  of  pollination  made  by  hand,  as  it  is  so  readily 
kept  clean  of  foreign  pollen.  In  the  center  of  the  flower 
will  be  seen  the  stigma,  which  projects  beyond  the  tips 
of  the  ring  of  anthers  or  pollen-bearing  organs  which 


POLLINATION. — ENEMIES.  237 

surround  it.  If  an  anther  is  separated  and  closely  ex- 
amined, it  will  be  seen  that  there  a. «}  two  small  openings 
at  the  tip  ;  it  is  through  these  that  the  pollen  normally 
escapes.  But  this  escape  does  not  take  place  freely  un- 
til the  flower  has  matured  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
tips  of  the  anthers  stand  erect  and  recede  from  the 
stigma,  leaving  the  latter  ="—i:  .supported.  The 

pollen  can  be  most  rapidly  ^diuci^  -upon  the  spatula 
by  inserting  the  point  of  the  metal  into  ihe  side  of  the 
anther  and  .opening  it  by  aa.~umy.ard  movement  of  the 
instrument.  In  this  manner  ^  .ity  of  pollen 

may  be  gathered  very  rapidly,  ana  n  i^  work  of  but 
an  instant  to  press  it  upon  the  end  of  the  stigma.  One 
such  treatment,  if  performed  when  the  surface  of  the 
stigma  is  adhesive,  is  sufficient  for  each  blossom. 

Eggplants  are  subject  to  the  attacks  of  all  the  com- 
mon greenhouse  pests,  but  if  care  is  exercised  nom  the 
beginning,  no  serious  damage  need  be  feared.  Green- 
fly is  easily  overcome  by  tobacco  smoke,  or  the  fumes  of 
tobacco  extract,  while  mealy-bug  can  be  overcome  by 
well-directed  streams  of  water.  The  foliage  of  eggplants 
is  not  easily  injured  by  such  applications  of  water,  and 
the  insects  may  be  dislodged  with  impunity  as  often  as 
they  appear.  The  worst  pests  of  eggplant  foliage  are 
the  red  spider  and  his  near  relative,  the  mite.  Tht,  lat- 
ter is  especially  difficult  to  treat,  as  it  is  not  so  much 
affected  by  moisture  as  the  red  spider  is,  and  for  this 
reason  it  cannot  be  so  readily  overcome.  The  rough 
foliage  of  the  eggplant  is  especially  well  adapted  to  the 
lodgment  of  these  mites,  and  when  they  have  once  be- 
come established,  their  extermination  is  practically  im- 
possible. Too  much  care,  therefore,  cannot  be  taken  in 
watching  for  the  first  appearance  of  these  scourges,  and 
in  destroying  them  as  soon  as  discovered.  It  is  well  to 
apply  water  freely  to  the  foliage,  even  before  the  insects 
appear,  for  the  leaves  do  not  immediately  show  their 
presence,  and  such  applications  will  do  no  harm.  The 


238  MISCELLANEOUS     WARM     PLANTS. 

Long  White  does  not  suffer  from  these  insects  so  much 
as  the  other  varieties,  since  it  has  comparatively  smooth 
leaves,  which  do  nbt  afford  a  very  secure  retreat.  Never- 
theless, it  will  bear  watching  as  well  as  the  others.  The 
water  that  is  applied  should  be  directed  mainly  toward 
the  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  as  the  mites  are  here 
found  in  the  greatest  abundance,  and  these  parts  are  also 
most  difficult  to  reach. 

The  returns  to  be  derived  from  eggplants  grown  in 
greenhouses  cannot  yet  be  estimated,  since  to  my  knowl- 
edge no  such  products  have  ever  been  placed  upon  the 
market.  The  first  fruits  from  the  south  command  a 
good  price,  but  whether  the  home-grown  article  will 
meet  with  such  favor  that  it  will  repay  the  cost  of  the 
long  period  of  growth  cannot  be  told.  The  Dwarf  Purple 
variety  may  be  depended  upon  to  give  the  earliest  and 
surest  results,  but  if  bigger  fruits  are  desired,  the  New 
Yorlc.,  Improved  promises  to  be  the  best.  The  fruits 
ought  ^o  sell  in  midwinter  for  50  cents  each,  and  if  they 
are  very  large  and  fine,  for  more  than  this.  The  experi- 
ment of  eggplant  forcing  from  a  commercial  standpoint 
is  well  worth  trying. 


PEPPER,     OR     CAPSICUM. 

Red  peppers  are  a  most  satisfactory  crop  for  winter, 
so  far  as  the  growing  of  them  is  concerned.  They  force 
readily,  yield  abundantly,  and  are  nearly  free  of  insects 
and  fungous  injuries.  The  large,  puffy  fruits  are  in  de- 
mand, just  as  they  reach  their  full  size  and  while  yet 
green,  for  the  making  of  stuffed  peppers,  a  delicacy 
which  is  much  esteemed  in  restaurants  and  hotels.  The 
so-called  "sweet  peppers"  are  the  kinds  sought,  such 
as  Sweet  Mountain  (which  we  consider  to  be  the  best 
for  forcing),  Procopp,  Bell,  Golden  Dawn,  and  the  like. 
If  the  fruits  sell  for  5  cents  each  (and  this  is  a  common 


PEPPERS    UNDER   GLASS. 


239 


87.    A  good  type  of  pepper  for  winter  forcing. 


240 


MISCELLANEOUS     WARM      PLANTS. 


price),  the  grower  ought  to  be  able  to  make  his  ex- 
penses ;  and  if  he  secures  more,  as  he  often  can,  the 
growing  of  them  should  be  fairly  remunerative  ;  but  he 
will  likely  find  that  the  peppers  which  are  shipped  in 
from  the  south  nearly  all  winter  are  most  unwelcome 
competitors  in  the  general  market.  A  plant  should  bear 
half  a  dozen  good  fruits,  which  it  can  do  if  well  grown 
and  if  the  fruits  are  picked  just  as  soon  as  they  are 
fit  for  market. 

In  winter,  about  three  and  a  half  months  are  required 
from  the  seed  to  the  first  saleable  fruit,  but  the  plants 
need  not  be  on  the 
benches  more  than  half 
or  two-thirds  of  that 
time.  They  are  usually 
started  in  flats,  pricked 
off  into  3-inch  pots  and 
turned  out  of  these  pots 
(when  in  the  condition 
shown  in  Fig.  86)  di- 
rectly into  the  bench. 
In  one  of  our  experi- 
ments, seeds  of  the  Sweet 
Mountain  were  sown  July 
20,  plants  pu  into  pots 
August  28,  set  in  the 
bench  September  14,  and 
gave  the  first  picking 

^one  fruit  to  the  plant)  on  October  21.  They  require 
a  longer  time  than  this  later  in  the  season.  A  bench 
3  teet  wide  will  grow  two  rows  of  peppers,  the  plants 
standing  a  foot  apart  in  the  row.  Earlier  results  can 
be  secured  by  growing  the  plants  in  6-inch  pots,  but  the 
crop  will  generally  be  less  and  the  fruits  smaller.  We 
'  :nk  that  peppers  like  an  intermediate  temperature, — 
a  little  cooler  than  for  melons, —although  we  have  had 
good  results  in  growing  them  along  the  edge  of  a  bench 


Pepper  plant 


THE    CYPHOMANDRA   OR   TREE   TOMATO.  24! 

in  which  melons  were  growing  at  the  same  time.  The 
flowers  do  not  need  pollinating.  The  fruits  set  of  them- 
selves, and  are  more  or  less  seedless. 


CYPHOMANDRA. 

In  1886  Peter  Henderson  &  Co.  advertised  seeds  of 
the  Tree  Tomato  of  Jamaica.  I  procured  seeds  and 
grew  the  plants.  The  results  of  the  effort,  as  published 
at  the  time,*  were  as  follows:  "The  so-called  Tree  To- 
mato of  Jamaica  was  reared  from  seeds  last  year,  and 
two  plants  were  carried  over  winter  in  the  greenhouse. 
They  were  potted  out  in  the  spring.  They  grew  well, 
attaining  a  height  of  8  feet.  They  blossomed  profusely 
during  the  fall,  but  did  not  set  fruit.  We  shall  carry 
them  over  another  year.  This  curious  plant  is  a  native 
of  tropical  America,  a  member  of  the  Solanum  family, 
though  not  a  tomato.  It  is  Cyphomandra  betacea.  It 
has  been  widely  distributed  through  the  tropics  of  late 
years.  The  fruit  more  nearly  resembles  an  ggplant 
fruit  than  a  tomato.  We  have  also  grown  it  this  year 
from  seeds  from  Peru,  which  were  sent  us  as  the 
'Chileno  Tomato.'  Of  course  the  plant  is  va  .eless 
in  this  climate." 

I  lost  the  plant  until  three  years  ago,  when  I  secured 
seed  again  from    southern    California,   and  as  this    book 
goes  to  the  printer  two  tree-like  plants  growing^tgg^ther, 
7  feet  high,  and  with  a  spread  of  4  feet,  bear  their  Cro- 
of  46  curious,    egg-like    fruits    (shown    two-thirds    natura' 
size  in   Fig.   88,    page   242).     The  plants  are  thi  nn^^i  i 
old,  and   were  once  cut  back  to  stumps.      The  plant'" 
and    we    had    others  —  bloomed     profusely    the     second 
year    from    seed,    but    no    amount    of    hand    pollination 
would  make  the  flowers  set  fruit.     The  present  crop  was 
not    hand-pollinated,    but    the    fruits    are    full    of    seeds 

*  Bulletin  31,  Michigan  Agric.  College,  10  (1887). 


242          MISCELLANEOUS   WARM   PLANTS, 


Fruit  and  foliage  of  cvphomandra.     Two-thirds  natural  size. 


THE    CYPHOMANDRA.  243 

They  set  in  the  summer  when  the  house  was  thrown 
open,  but  I  suspect  that  the  flowers  are  self-fertile.  The 
fruits  measure  almost  uniformly  2  inches  long  and  i^ 
inches  wide.  The  color  when  ripe  is  a  light,  clear,  red- 
dish brown,  shading  into  dull  olive-green  towards  the 
stem,  and  sparingly  streaked  with  olive-green.  In  ex- 
ternal features  the  fruits  strongly  resemble  small  speci- 
mens of  pepino.  The  fruit  is  two-celled,  like  a  small 
tomato,  and  has  numerous  tomato-like  seeds  on  central 
placentae.  The  flavor  is  a  musky  acidity,  not  very  un- 
like that  of  some  tomatoes.  Theodosia  B.  Shepherd,  of 
southern  California,  writes  in  American  Gardening  for 
July  ii,  1896  (and  gives  a  picture),  as  follows,  of  the 
quality  of  the  fruit,  which,  she  says,  is  sometimes  called 
Brazilian  Melon  Fruit:  "When  fully  ripe,  it  is  deli- 
cious. When  the  outer  rind  is  taken  off,  and  it  is  sliced, 
it  can  be  served  as  a  salad,  with  dressing,  or  eaten  with 
sugar  and  cream.  It  makes  a  fine  jelly  or  jam,  with  the 
flavor  of  apricots,  but  more  delicate.  The  ripe  fruit  does 
not  bruise  easily,  because  of  the  thick  outer  rind,  so 
that  it  keeps  a  long  time,  and  can  be  shipped  long  dis- 
tances. ' ' 

The  leaves  of  this  cyphomandra  are  large  and  heavy, 
heart-shaped,  and  perfectly  entire.  The  plant  has  a  trop- 
ical look,  and  a  well-grown  plant  is  always  sure  to  attract 
attention.  The  plant  is  much  loved  of  the  mealy-bug,  but 
we  have  found  no  fungi  attacking  it.  We  do  not  know 
what  forcing  temperature  best  suits  this  plant,  but  I 
imagine  that  it  likes  a  cooler  place  than  tomatoes  do. 

The  cyphomandra  fruit  is  sometimes  seen  in  the  New 
York  markets,  coming  from  Jamaica,  and  is  often  called 
Grenadilla.  In  the  tropics,  the  fruit  is  eaten  either  raw  or 
cooked,  after  the  manner  of  tomatoes.  The  plant  there 
attains  a  height  of  10  or  12  feet.  In  Spanish  America  it 
is  said  to  be  known  as  tomato  de  la  Paz.  The  plant  is 
a  native  of  South  America,  it  having  been  introduced  into 
British  gardens  from  southern  Brazil  by  Tweedie,  who 
17  FORC. 


244  MISCELLANEOUS     WARM     PLANTS. 

sent  it  to  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Glasgow.  It  was 
figured,  without  fruit,  in  1839  in  Botanical  Magazine 
(t.  3684),  with  a  description  by  Sir  W.  J.  Hooker.  At  that 
time  it  was  known  as  Solanum  fragrans.  The  genus 
Cyphomandra  was  separated  from  Solanum  by  Martius  in 
1845.  The  latest  account  of  the  genus  Cyphomandra 
admits  38  species,  all  South  American. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 


SUMMARIES    OF    THE    MANAGEMENT    OF    THE 
VARIOUS    CROPS. 

ASPARAGUS. 

ASPARAGUS  is  customarily  forced  from  roots  which 
have  been  allowed  to  reach  the  age  of  four  years  or  more 
in  the  field.  These  roots  are  removed  to  the  forcing- 
house,  and  after  being  forced  once  are  thrown  away 
(pages  127,  130). 

The  roots  are  dug  late  in  fall,  and  are  stored  in  a 
cold  cellar  or  a  shed  until  they  are  wanted  for  forcing. 
They  are  usually  covered  with  straw,  but  freezing  is  not 
injurious  if  they  remain  moist  (page  130). 

The  clumps  are  generally  forced  under  benches,  in  a 
temperature  suited  to  lettuce  or  cauliflower.  High  tem- 
peratures give  quick  results,  but  the  shoots  are  generally 
more  slender  and  spindling  (page  131). 

The  clumps  are  packed  close  together  upon  2  or  3 
inches  of  earth  and  covered  with  about  3  or  4  inches  of 
loose  earth.  In  two  to  three  weeks,  edible  shoots  will 
appear,  and  the  cutting  may  continue  for  five  to  eight 
weeks.  The  amount  and  value  of  the  crop  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  strength  of  the  clumps  (pages  131,  132). 


Beans    are    very    easily    forced    for   the   green    pods 
("string  beans").     They  may   be  grown  to  maturity  in 
pots  or  boxes  which   are  set  in  vacant  places   about  the 
(245) 


246  MANAGEMENT   OF   THE    VARIOUS   CROPS. 

house,  or  they  may  occupy  benches  either  as  a  leading 
crop  or  as  a  catch  crop  with  cucumbers,  melons,  or  to- 
matoes (page  225). 

The  soil  for  beans  should  be  rich  and  "  quick."  We 
use  6  to  8  inches  of  soil  placed  upon  benches,  making  it 
of  garden  loam  and  nearly  or  quite  one-quarter  of  very 
thoroughly  rotted  manure  (page  225). 

The  temperature  for  beans  should  be  approximately 
that  for  cucumbers, — 60°  to  65°  at  night,  and  10  to  15  de- 
grees higher  during  the  dayv  The  plants  should  have 
strong  bottom  heat  (pages  226,  227). 

A  good  forcing  bean  is  one  which  is  early  and  pro- 
ductive, compact  in  habit,  and  which  bears  long,  straight 
and  symmetrical  pods.  We  prefer  the  Sion  House  bean, 
a  green-podded  variety  (page  227). 

Six  or  eight  weeks  are  required  from  the  sowing  of 
the  seeds  to  the  first  picking  (page  225). 

Beans  are  self-fertile,  and  hand  pollination  is,  therefore, 
unnecessary  (page  227). 

House  beans  are  usually  marketed  in  neat  bunches 
(Fig.  8 1),  containing  50  pods.  In  special  and  personal 
markets,  the  pods  should  bring  from  ^  cent  to  i  cent 
each  (page  227). 

Not  more  than  three  good  pickings  can  be  expected 
from  any  crop,  and  very  often  it  is  not  profitable  to  re- 
tain the  plants  after  a  single  picking  (page  227). 

The  leading  enemies  of  beans  are  red  spider  and 
mites.  Keep  the  foliage  moist  if  attack  is  feared  (page 
228). 

BEET,   CARROT. 

Beets  require  such  a  long  season,  and  yield  so  little 
profit,  that  they  are  rarely  grown  as  a  main  crop  in  forc- 
ing-houses. They  are  commonly  grown  between  late  cu- 
cumbers or  tomatoes.  Seeds  are  generally  sown  in  flats, 
and  the  young  plants  are  "pricked  out  into  rows  between 
the  other  crops.  If  grown  by  themselves,  beets  require  a 


CAULIFLOWER — CELERY — CRESS.          247 

lettuce-house  temperature  (page  145).    Carrot  is  treated  in 
the  same  way,  but  is  rarely  forced  for  market. 

CAULIFLOWER. 

Cauliflower  demands  a  low  temperature  (about  50°  at 
night  and  10  to  15  degrees  higher  in  the  day),  and  a 
solid  bed  (page  in). 

Four  to  five  months  from  the  seed  are  required  in 
which  to  get  marketable  heads.  The  plants  should  be 
transplanted  at  least  once  before  they  are  set  in  their 
permanent  quarters.  They  should  be  planted  about  16 
inches  apart  each  way  (pages  in,  112). 

The  plants  must  be  kept  growing  uniformly,  else  the 
heads  will  "button"  (pages  109,  112,  113). 

The  Snowball  and  Early  Erfurt  strains  are  good  for 
forcing  (pages  112,  113,  114). 

The  cauliflower  may  be  troubled  with  aphis  or  green- 
fly, but  it  has  developed  no  other  serious  diseases  or 
difficulties  under  glass,  unless  possibly,  in  common  with 
all  plants,  a  facility  for  damping-off  (page  in). 


Celery  may  be  forced  by  starting  the  seed  in  fall  or 
very  early  winter,  and  holding  the  plants  back  until 
spring.  Early  in  March  (or  in  February),  the  plants  are 
put  in  solid  beds  (in  a  lettuce  or  carnation  house)  8  to  10 
inches  apart,  and  they  are  then  set  into  rapid  growth. 
The  plants  are  bleached  by  tying  them  up  in  stiff,  hard 
paper  (page  139). 


Water-cress  grows  readily  on  moist  ground  under- 
neath benches  in  a  cool  or  intermediate  house  (page  141). 

Garden  cress  may  be  grown  in  beds  or  on  benches 
which  are  suited  to  the  raising  of  lettuce.  The  seeds  are 
commonly  sown  where  the  plants  are  to  stand  (page  142). 


248       MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  VARIOUS  CROPS. 
CUCUMBER. 

Forcing  cucumbers  are  of  two  types,  the  English  or 
frame  kinds,  and  the  White  Spine  kinds.  The  former  are 
characterized  by  very  large  size,  partial  or  complete  ab- 
sence of  spines,  more  or  less  seedlessness,  very  ram- 
pant growth  of  vine,  tardiness  in  coming  into  fruit,  and  a 
long-continuing  period  of  bearing.  The  White  Spine  type 
is  more  commonly  forced  for  market  in  this  country 
(pages  184,  194). 

The  English  cucumbers  like  a  temperature  of  about  60° 
or  65°  at  night,  and  of  70°  to  75°  at  day  (page  186). 

It  is  exceedingly  important  that  the  vines  should  be 
kept  in  a  uniform  and  vigorous  condition  of  growth  from 
the  start,  but  avoid  pushing  them  very  much  in  dull 
weather.  English  cucumbers  are  gross  feeders,  and  must 
have  a  rich  soil  (page  186). 

From  So  to  100  days  are  required,  in  winter,  from  the 
sowing  of  the  seed  of  English  cucumbers  to  the  securing 
of  the  fruit.  The  plants  must  have  good  bottom  heat 
(page  189). 

The  plants  are  started  in  pots  (3-inch  rose  pots  being 
excellent),  which  are  at  first  only  a  third  or  half  full  of 
earth.  From  these  pots  the  plants  are  turned  directly  into 
the  benches,  where  they  should  stand  about  2)^  by  3  ft. 
apart.  When  in  the  pots,  the  plants  must  never  be 
allowed  to  become  checked,  and  they  must  be  kept  free 
of  aphis  (page  187). 

The  plants  are  trained  upon  a  wire  trellis,  or  some- 
times on  the  roof.  Usually  two  or  three  strong  branches 
or  leaders  are  allowed  to  each  plant,  and  a  few  strong 
side  shoots  are  taken  out  of  each  leader.  All  weak 
growths  are  pinched  out  (page  188). 

Leading  varieties  of  English  cucumbers  are  Sion 
House,  Telegraph,  Edinburgh,  and  Blue  Gown  (page 
190). 

Jt  is  generally  necessary,   to  insure  a  crop,  to  hand- 


DANDELION — EGGPLANT.  249 

pollinate  English  cucumbers,  although  fruits  will  often 
set  without  this  labor  and  will  be,  therefore,  wholly  seed- 
less (page  195). 

White  Spine  cucumbers  are  forced  in  essentially  the 
same  way  as  the  English  sorts,  but  they  are  oftener 
grown  as  a  spring  crop  (following  lettuce  or  plant  stock) 
than  the  others  are.  They  come  into  bearing  sooner, 
ripen  their  fruits  more  simultaneously,  demand  full  sun- 
light, and  may  be  planted  rather  closer  together  than 
the  others  (page  201). 

The  White  Spine  types  should  mature  the  entire  crop 
in  about  three  months  after  the  plants  are  set  in  the 
benches.  A  plant  will  yield  from  20  to  90  fruits,  depend- 
ing upon  the  management  of  the  house,  the  strength  of 
the  soil,  the  distance  apart  of  the  plants,  and  the  thor- 
oughness with  which  the  fruits  are  picked  when  fit  for 
market  (page  202). 

Cucumber  enemies  are  the  mite,  aphis,  root-gall,  and 
mildew.  For  the  mite,  syringe  the  plants  and  pick  off 
the  infested  leaves  ;  for  aphis,  use  tobacco  fumigation  and 
pick  infested  leaves ;  for  root-gall,  use  soil  which  has 
been  thoroughly  frozen  ;  for  mildew,  improve  the  sani- 
tary conditions,  and  then  use  sulphur  (page  200). 

DANDELION. 

Dandelion  is  sometimes  forced  from  roots  which  are 
lifted  in  the  fall,  the  seeds  having  been  sown  in  the 
spring.  The  plant  requires  about  the  same  temperature 
and  treatment  as  lettuce  does  (page  143). 

EGGPLANT. 

Eggplants  are  not  forced  for  market,  but  the  plants 
can  be  grown  under  glass  without  especial  difficulty. 
Their  season  is  long  (5  to  9  months),  and  eggplant  fruits 
come  in  from  the  south  in  winter  (pages  228,  233,  235). 

The    plants  should    be  started    in    flats    or   pots,   and 


250  MANAGEMENT   OF   THE   VARIOUS   CROPS. 

transplanted  two  or  three  times  before  going  into  perma- 
nent quarters.  The  temperature,  soil  and  general  treat- 
ment should  be  essentially  the  same  as  for  tomatoes. 
They  must  have  bottom  heat  and  full  sunlight  (pages  230, 

235). 

Eggplants  should  stand  about  2  feet  apart  each  way  if 
the  coarse-growing  varieties  are  grown,  and  20  inches  if 
the  Early  Dwarf  Purple  is  grown  (pages  230,  235). 

Fruits  will  set  without  hand-pollination  (Fig.  82),  but 
they  will  not  grow  to  marketable  size.  Instructions  for 
pollination  are  given  on  pages  236  and  237. 

Early  Dwarf  Purple  is  the  earliest  and  most  productive 
variety  for  forcing,  but  the  fruits  are  small.  Our  second 
choice  is  New  York  Improved  (pages  232  to  235). 

Eggplant  is  loved  of  the  green-fly,  mealy-bug,  red 
spider,  and  mite.  The  spider  and  mite  are  its  most 
ardent  admirers,  and  they  must  be  freely  baptized  if  it  is 
desired  to  keep  them  off  (page  237). 


There  are  two  general  kinds  or  types  of  forcing  let- 
tuce, that  which  forms  more  or  less  solid  heads  (Fig.  34), 
and  that  which  remains  open  and  leafy  (Figs.  32,  33). 
The  former  is  more  prized  in  New  England  and  other 
eastern  markets.  It  is  more  difficult  to  grow  to  perfec- 
tion than  the  leafy  type  is,  and  is  particularly  subject  to 
influence  by  the  soil. 

Lettuce  demands  a  night  temperature  of  about  45°,  and 
never  higher  than  50°,  and  a  day  temperature  of  about 
55°  to  65°  (page  94). 

Solid  or  ground  beds  are  most  satisfactory  for  the 
growing  of  lettuce.  Upon  benches,  more  care  is  required 
in  growing  the  crop,  and  the  difficulties  are  aggravated  if 
the  bench  has  bottom  heat  (page  94). 

Good  lettuce  may  also  be  grown  in  pots,  and  thereby 
be  marketed  with  a  good  ball  of  earth  attached.  This 


LETTUCE.  251 

method    is    little    used,    however    (Fig.    33,    page    99). 

The  character  of  the  soil  has  very  much  to  do  with 
the  ease  of  growing  lettuce,  and  also  with  the  quality  of 
the  crop.  Good  lettuce  soils  should  be  very  open  and 
porous  (made  so  by  the  presence  of  sand  and  the  absence 
of  clay),  with  a  capacity  to  hold  much  water,  but  an 
ability,  nevertheless,  to  remain  comparatively  dry  on  top 
(page  96). 

The  electric  light  has  a  marked  effect  in  hastening  the 
maturity  of  lettuce  (pages  80,  101). 

A  lettuce  crop  matures  in  seven  to  ten  weeks  if  the 
seed  is  sown  in  September.  In  the  winter  months,  two 
to  four  weeks  longer  may  be  required  (page  101). 

The  first  sowing  (in  early  September)  may  be  made  in 
the  open,  but  subsequent  ones  are  made  in  flats  or  in 
vacant  places  in  the  beds  (or  possibly  in  hotbeds).  Best 
results  are  obtained  if  the  plants  are  transplanted  twice, 
once  into  other  flats  or  into  temporary  beds  (about  4 
inches  apart  each  way),  and  again  into  their  permanent 
quarters,  where  they  should  stand  about  8  inches  apart 
each  way  (pages  101,  102). 

Leading  varieties  are  the  Boston  Market  (or  White- 
seeded  Tennis  Ball)  and  Grand  Rapids.  The  former  is  a 
heading  lettuce  (Fig.  34),  and  the  latter  non-heading  (Fig. 
32).  There  are  several  other  good  varieties  (page  104). 

Aphis  or  green-fly  is  held  in  check  by  keeping  the 
plants  in  a  uniform  condition  of  vigorous  and  healthy 
growth,  and  then  by  fumigating  with  tobacco  or  by  strew- 
ing tobacco  stems  amongst  the  plants  (page  104). 

The  rot  is  worst  in  soils  which  remain  wet  on  top  and 
which  contain  much  manure  or  decaying  matter.  Keep- 
ing the  temperature  high  and  the  house  very  wet  also 
favors  it  (page  105,  Fig.  35). 

The  mildew  is  worst  in  houses  which  are  kept  very 
close  and  warm  and  wet.  It  is  most  frequent  when 
draughts  are  allowed  to  strike  the  plants.  When  it  ap- 
pears, evaporate  sulphur  (first,  however,  improving  the 


252  MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    VARIOUS   CROPS. 

sanitary  conditions),  taking  care  not    to  let    the  sulphur 
catch  fire  (page  106). 

Leaf-burn  or  top-burn  is  the  result  of  bad  sanitary 
conditions,  being  especially  favored  by  a  soil  which  holds 
too  much  water ;  also  by  insufficient  care  in  ventilating 
and  watering  in  dull  weather.  It  is  most  harmful  in  the 
heading  varieties  (page  106). 


Sage  and  spearmint  may  be  forced  from  plants  trans- 
planted to  the  house  in  the  fall ;  or,  better,  established 
beds  may  be  covered.  They  require  a  lettuce-house  tem- 
perature (page  143). 

MUSKMELON. 

Melons,  when  raised  under  glass,  are  generally  grown 
for  a  late  fall  or  early  spring  crop.  For  midwinter  use, 
they  are  practically  unknown,  because  the  quality  is  gen- 
erally poor  (page  204). 

Muskmelons  may  be  ripened  in  full  normal  quality  in 
midwinter,  however,  if  given  much  heat  (65°  to  70°  at 
night,  and  80°  to  85°  at  midday),  if  the  soil  is  strong  (par- 
ticularly in  mineral  fertilizer),  if  the  plants  are  never 
allowed  to  become  checked,  and  if  the  soil  is  kept  dry 
when  the  fruits  are  ripening  (page  205). 

Houses  which  are  adapted  to  winter  cucumbers  and 
tomatoes  are  also  adapted  to  melons.  The  plants  are 
grown  only  on  benches,  at  least  for  the  winter  crops,  and 
are  given  ample  bottom  heat.  They  need  unshaded  roofs 
(page  207). 

The  soil  for  melons  may  be  well-rotted  sods  from  an 
old  pasture,  with  some  thoroughly  composted  manure 
worked  into  it.  If  the  soil  is  naturally  rich  in  nitrogen 
(tending  to  make  plants  run  to  vine),  stable  manure 
should  be  used  very  sparingly,  or  not  at  all.  The  soil  on 
the  bench  may  be  from  5  to  7  inches  deep  (page  207). 


MUSKMELON.  253 

Melon  seeds  are  started  in  2-inch  or  3-inch  pots,  only 
one  plant  being  allowed  to  grow  in  each  pot.  The  plants 
are  transferred  to  4-inch  pots,  and  then  to  the  benches. 
If  the  plants  become  stunted,  they  are  worthless  (page 
210). 

In  benches  4  feet  wide,  the  plants  may  be  set  2%  feet 
apart  in  two  rows ;  or  they  may  be  set  18  inches  apart  in 
a  single  row.  When  only  a  single  row  is  used,  the  row 
may  be  set  near  one  side  of  the  bench  and  a  part  of  the 
wide  side  left  unfilled  ;  in  this  unfilled  portion  the  soil  is 
added  at  intervals,  thus  affording  new  forage  as  it  may 
be  needed.  It  is  always  well  to  set  twice  as  many  plants 
in  the  bed  as  will  be  needed,  in  order  to  insure  against 
losses  from  accidents,  damping-off,  and  the  like  (page 
209). 

The  plants  are  headed-in  as  soon  as  they  are  estab- 
lished in  their  permanent  quarters,  in  order  to  make  them 
branch  and  to  set  them  into  fruit-bearing.  Three  or  four 
main  arms  are  trained  out  fan-shaped  on  a  wire  trellis, 
and  each  one  is  headed-in  when  4  or  5  feet  high.  All 
blind  and  fine  shoots  must  be  kept  off.  Some  growers 
allow  the  main  stem  to  grow  straight  up,  and  take  out 
side  branches  from  it  (page  211). 

The  fruits  hang  free,  and  are  supported  in  slings  of 
soft  broad  cord,  or  in  swings  (Figs.  73,77,  page  211). 

Melon  flowers  must  be  pollinated  by  hand.  The  first 
two  or  three  pistillate  flowers  are  not  pollinated,  for  if 
one  fruit  is  set  much  in  advance  of  the  other  flowers  it 
will  absorb  the  attention  of  the  vine,  and  it  will  be  found 
to  be  very  difficult  to  set  other  fruits  (page  214). 

We  have  found  good  forcing  varieties  to  be  Blenheim 
Orange,  Hero  of  Lockinge,  Masterpiece,  Sutton  A  i,  Im- 
perial, and  Emerald  Gem.  There  are  numerous  other 
acceptable  varieties  (page  215). 

An  average  of  two  good  melons  to  a  plant  is  a  good 
crop  in  midwinter.  In  fall  and  spring,  four  and  five  fruits 
may  be  obtained  (page  220), 


254  MANAGEMENT   OF   THE    VARIOUS    CROPS. 

Insects  troubling  melons  are  aphis  and  mealy-bug,  es- 
pecially the  latter.  Fumigate  with  tobacco  for  the  aphis, 
and  knock  off  the  mealy-bug  with  a  hard  stream  of  water. 
Mites  are  also  serious  on  house  melons.  For  these,  keep 
the  foliage  well  syringed  (page  221). 

Diseases  of  house  melons  are  mildew  and  damping- 
off.  For  the  former,  improve  the  sanitary  conditions,  and 
then  use  sulphur.  For  damping-off,  or  canker,  keep  the 
earth  dry  about  the  crown  of  the  plant,  and  use  soils 
which  do  not  remain  wet  and  pasty  on  top.  House-blight 
is  a  name  which  we  have  given  to  a  physiological  trouble 
(Fig.  79),  which  arises  when  the  plants  are  allowed  to  go 
through  the  night  wet,  especially  when  other  sanitary  con- 
ditions are  bad  (page  222). 


Parsley  is  forced  from  roots  taken  to  the  house  in  the 
fall,  and  which  are  raised  from  spring-sown  seeds.  Treat 
essentially  the  same  as  for  lettuce  (page  142). 


Both  dwarf  and  tall  peas  may  be  forced.  The  former 
give  earlier  results,  but  the  larger  and  better  yields  are 
obtained  from  the  half-tall  varieties.  Varieties  like  Rural 
New-Yorker  will  mature  in  70  to  80  days  from  the  seed 
in  winter.  The  temperature  should  be  as  low  as  for  let- 
tuce. Peas  may  be  grown  in  solid  beds  or  in  boxes 
placed  amongst  other  plants.  Peas  yield  little,  and  they 
are  rarely  forced  for  market  (page  135). 

PEPINO. 

The  pepino  is  a  solanum,  something  like  eggplant, 
which  may  be  forced  in  a  cool  house.  It  is  a  sub-shrub, 
and  is  propagated  by  cuttings.  Cuttings  taken  in  March 
may  be  expected  to  bear  the  next  January  or  February. 


PEPPER — RADISH.  255 

It  is  best  to  grow  the  plants  in  pots  or  boxes.  The  plant 
is  little  known  in  this  country,  but  it  is  no  doubt  worthy 
of  considerable  attention  (page  146). 


Red  peppers  are  very  easily  forced,  and  if  one  can  get 
5  cents  or  more  apiece  for  the  fruits  he  should  be  able  to 
grow  them  for  the  winter  market.  The  southern-grown 
product  is  cheaper,  however,  and  scarcely  inferior  (page 
238). 

Peppers  need  bottom  heat,  a  little  cooler  temperature 
than  melons,  but  hand-pollination  seems  to  be  unnec- 
essary (pages  240,  241). 

The  plants  are  handled  like  tomato  plants,  and  about 
3^  months  are  required,  from  the  seed-sowing,  in  which 
to  get  the  first  fruits.  The  plants  may  stand  a  foot  apart 
in  the  row,  and  2  rows  can  go  on  a  3-ft.  bench  (page 
240). 

We  like  the  Sweet  Mountain  best  for  forcing.  Only 
the  large  and  puffy,  or  "sweet,"  peppers  are  forced 
(page  238). 


Radishes  require  to  be  grown  quickly,  else  they  are 
worthless.  About  35  to  40  days  is  required  to  mature 
the  crop,  from  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed  (pages  115, 
123). 

The  proper  temperature  for  radishes  is  45°  to  50°  at 
night,  and  55°  to  65°  at  day  (pages  118,  125). 

Radish  seed  is  commonly  sown  where  the  plants  are 
to  stand.  The  smaller  varieties  may  be  grown  in  drills 
which  are  only  3  inches  apart,  but  most  varieties  need  4 
or  5  inches  between  the  rows.  The  plants  should  be 
thinned  to  nearly  or  quite  2  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
Uniformly  large  seeds  give  the  surest  and  most  uniform 
results  (pages  115,  117,  122). 


256  MANAGEMENT    OF   THE    VARIOUS    CROPS. 

Solid  beds  should  be  used  for  radishes,  and  the  house 
should  be  light  and  airy.  If  benches  are  used,  they 
should  have  no  bottom  heat  (pages  116,  119,  122). 

The  soil  should  be  warm  and  quick,  with  an  ordinary 
amount  of  sand,  and  no  coarse  manure.  It  should  be 
made  rich  by  working  old  manure  thoroughly  into  it. 
The  short  radishes  will  thrive  in  4  inches  of  soil,  but  bet- 
ter results  with  most  kinds  will  be  obtained  in  6  to  8 
inches  (pages  116,  122). 

The  varieties  are  many.  Amongst  those  which  may 
be  commended  are  Ne  Plus  Ultra,  Roman  Carmine,  Prus- 
sian Globe,  New  Rapid  Forcing,  French  Breakfast,  New 
Crystal  Forcing,  and  Long  Scarlet  Short-top.  The  turnip- 
shaped  kinds  are  usually  preferable  (pages  120,  124). 


Rhubarb  or  pie-plant  is  forced  in  essentially  the  same 
manner  as  asparagus  (which  see).  The  roots  of  mature 
plants  are  dug  in  the  fall,  and  they  are  bedded  in  hotbeds 
or  underneath  benches  in  a  cool  or  intermediate  house, 
being  covered  with  2  to  6  inches  of  soil  (page  134). 

SPINACH. 

Spinach  is  now  rarely  forced  under  glass,  because  the 
crop  can  be  more  cheaply  grown  in  the  south.  It  is 
handled  in  essentially  the  same  manner  that  lettuce  is 
(page  142). 


The  tomato  is  rapidly  assuming  great  importance  as  a 
commercial  forcing  crop.  It  is  often  profitable  even  in 
the  face  of  the  competition  of  the  early  crop  from  the 
south  (page  153). 

For  winter  crops,  the  best  results  are  obtained  in 
houses  which  are  used  primarily  for  tomato  growing,  but 
spring  crops  may  be  advantageously  grown  following  car- 


TOMATO.  257 

nations  or  winter  lettuce.  The  house  should  be  warm 
and  very  bright,  with  at  least  5  or  6  feet  of  head  room 
above  each  bench  (pages  153,  8). 

The  temperature  for  tomatoes  should  be  about  60°  to 
65°  at  night,  and  about  75°  at  day  (page  154). 

The  soil  should  be  rich,  but  the  manure  which  is  used 
in  the  earth  should  be  well  rotted  and  broken  down. 
Rich,  rather  loose  garden  loam,  to  which  a  fourth  or  fifth 
of  the  bulk  of  fine  manure  is  added,  makes  an  ideal  soil. 
Liquid  manure  may  need  to  be  applied  when  the  plants 
come  into  bearing  (pages  154,  53). 

Tomatoes  should  always  have  bottom  heat,  unless, 
perhaps,  for  the  late  spring  or  early  summer  crop.  They 
are  grown  in  both  benches  and  boxes,  nearly  all  com- 
mercial growers  preferring  the  former  because  of  their 
cheapness.  The  benches  contain  from  6  to  8  inches  of 
soil  (page  157). 

House  tomatoes  are  grown  both  from  seeds  and  cut- 
tings, and  both  methods  are  in  common  use.  When 
made  from  strong,  healthy  shoots  the  cuttings  are  prob- 
ably in  every  way  as  good  as  seedlings,  and  they  usually 
bear  sooner ;  but  cuttings  are  likely  to  perpetuate  a  weak- 
ness of  a  plant,  and  they  are  apt  to  give  only  indifferent 
results  when  taken  from  old  and  partially  exhausted 
plants.  On  the  whole,  seedlings  are  probably  preferable 
(page  155). 

The  second  crop  of  the  season  (coming  on  in  late 
winter)  may  be  obtained  either  from  new  seedling  plants, 
from  cuttings,  from  a  shoot  trained  out  from  the  old 
stump,  or  by  burying  the  old  stem  and  allowing  the  tip 
to  continue  to  grow.  Seedlings  are  usually  preferable,  as 
indicated  in  the  last  paragraph  (page  166). 

From  four  to  five  months  are  required,  after  seed-sow- 
ing, to  secure  ripe  fruit.  Seeds  are  usually  sown  in  flats, 
and  the  young  plants  should  be  handled  at  least  twice 
(preferably  into 'pots)  before  they  are  put  into  permanent 
quarters  (page  155). 


258  MANAGEMENT   OF   THE    VARIOUS   CROPS. 

The  plants  may  be  trained  either  to  a  single  perpen- 
dicular stem  (being  tied  to  a  vertical  cord),  or  two  or 
three  stems  or  branches  may  be  taken  out  and  trained  in 
a  fan-shaped  fashion  (either  on  diverging  cords  or  on 
wire  trellises).  For  single-stem  training  (which  is  gen- 
erally considered  to  be  best),  the  plants  may  be  set  about 
20  x  24  inches ;  in  the  fan  system,  they  are  set  from  2  to 
3  feet  each  way  (pages  160,  158). 

The  heavy  clusters  of  fruit  are  held  up  in  slings  of 
raffia  or  soft  cord.  The  plants  must  be  kept  open,  and 
free  from  all  stray  and  blind  growths  (page  161). 

Especial  care  must  be  taken  not  to  water  too  freely 
in  heavy  soils,  and  particularly  in  dull  weather.  Over- 
watered  plants  may  develop  dropsy,  and  they  are  liable 
to  many  ills  (pages  161,  177). 

Tomato  flowers  must  be  hand-pollinated.  This  opera- 
tion is  done  in  midday,  when  the  sun  is  bright  and  the 
house  dry.  The  best  method  is  to  collect  the  pollen  in  a 
spoon  or  ladle  (Fig.  53)  and  to  touch  the  end  of  the 
stigma  with  the  dust  (page  162). 

The  tomato  fruit  seems  to  be  increased  in  size  by  a 
very  liberal  application  of  pollen  (Fig.  55),  and  it  devel- 
ops more  symmetrically  if  care  is  taken  to  apply  the 
pollen  equally  over  the  entire  stigmatic  surface  (page  163). 

In  winter,  single-stem  tomatoes  should  average  about 
2  Ibs.  of  good  fruit  to  the  plant,  and  in  spring  and  early 
summer  twice  that  much  (page  169). 

The  most  popular  forcing  tomato  in  this  country  is 
Lorillard.  Other  good  ones  are  Ignotum,  Chemin  Market, 
Golden  Queen,  Volunteer.  Almost  any  of  the  free-grow- 
ing varieties  force  well  (page  172). 

House  tomatoes  are  generally  sent  to  market  in  neat 
splint  baskets  (like  the  Climax)  holding  from  4  to  10  Ibs. 
of  fruit.  Each  fruit  should  be  wrapped  in  soft  paper 
(page  174). 

Animal  parasites  of  the  tomato  are  the  aleyrodes  scale 
(kept  in  check  by  tobacco  fumigation),  mite  (held  at  bay 


TOMATO.  259 

by  syringing  the  plants  and  picking  off  infested  leaves), 
and  the  root-gall  (prevented  by  using  only  soil  which  has 
been  thoroughly  frozen  since  a  crop  has  been  grown  upon 
it)  illustrated  in  Fig.  29,  and  discussed  on  pages  84  and 
85  (page  175). 

Diseases  of  house  tomatoes  are  fruit-rot  (pick  off  the 
injured  fruits),  blight  or  rust  (spray  with  fungicide),  dropsy 
(caused  by  too  much  wet  and  too  little  light),  and  winter 
blight  (destroy  the  plants),  this  last  being  very  little 
understood  (page  177). 


1 8  FORC. 


INDEX. 


Page 

Page 

Accidents    2 

Beet,  account  of  145 

Adsched,  on  melon  205 

—  electric  light  on  80 

"Agricultural  Science,"  quoted.    96 

—  mentioned  5,     6 

Aiton,  on  pepino  150 

—  summary  of  246 

Aleyrodes  89,  175 

—  temperature  for  5 

Alga  .       67 

Beets  and  sub-irrigation  ....    77 

Alternation  of  crops  7 

Benches  40 

"American  Garden,"  quoted  85,  151 

Benson,  Martin,  and  pepino.  .  151 

"American  Gardening,"  quoted, 

Bermuda,  cucumbers  in  .   .  185,  196 

102,  121,  243 

Bisulphide  of  carbon  90 

"American  Naturalist,"  quoted, 

Blight  of  tomato         .   .       .   .      180 

192,  194 

Bordeaux  mixture      .     84,177,182 

"Annalesdes  Sciences,  "quoted.  194 

"  Botanical  Magazine,"  quoted  244 

Aphis  104,111,125,200 

Botrytis  vulgaris  105 

—  destroying  ...       ...  84,  86,  89 

Brazilian  melon  fruit  243 

Apples,  pollination  of  165 

Britton,  W.  E.,  quoted  53 

Artotrogus  Debaryanus  .  .   .85,   86 

Bubbles  in  glass         ....     207 

Ashes  for  forcing-house  soil.  .     55 

Building  forcing-houses  ....    16. 

Asparagus,  account  of  .  .   .  127,130 

Busch,  Fred.,  mentioned    ...    48 

—  mentioned  4,5,     7 

Butted  glass  37 

—  summary  of  245 

Cabbage-worm      in 

—  temperature  for  .   .   .  .5,49,   50 

California,  cyphomandra  in,  241,  243 

Atkinson,  on  damping-off  .   .   .    84 

—  pepino  in    151 

—  on  oedema  178 

"  Canadian        Horticulturist," 

Bailey,  on  damping-off  85 

quoted  175 

—  on  electric  light  80 

Canker                                      84    222 

Barkham,  James,  on  melon  .  .  209, 

Capsicum.    See  Pepper. 

212,215 

Carnations  and  vegetables  ...     8 

Bauhin,  quoted  192 

Carrot,  account  of  145 

—  mentioned  6,     7 

—  mentioned  5,     6 

—prices  of  4 

—  summary  of  246 

—  summary  of  245,246 

—  temperature  for  5 

—  temperature  for  5 

Category  of  forcing  crops  ...     4 

Beds  40 

Cauliflower,  account  of  ...      108 

Bees  in  forcing-houses  81 

—  electric  light  on  80 

(260) 


INDEX. 


26l 


Cauliflower,  mentioned,  6,17, 43, 140 

—  summary  of 247 

—  temperature  for 5,    49 

Celery,  account  of 139 

—  mentioned 5.6.7 

—  summary  of 247 

—  temperature  for 5.   49 

Cellars,  use  of .   .     4 

Cement  for  gutters 33 

—  for  walls 35 

Central  America,  pepino  in  .   .  150 
Charcoal  and  damping-off ...    84 
Chester  Co.,  carnations  in  ...     8 

Chicory 4 

Chileno  tomato 241 

Chrysanthemums,  mentioned.  .  140 
Cladosporium  fulvum.  .  .  177 

Clay  and   lettuce-growing  ...     8 

Climate  and  forcing 8 

Coal,  cost  of 9-15 

Coates,  Leonard,  quoted.  ...      a 

Compost  heaps  .         64 

Connecticut     experiments     in 

fertilizing  lettuce 6t 

on  manures 63 

on  tomatoes 53 

Construction  of  houses 16 

Cool  plants 4,   49 

Corbett,  L.  C.,  mentioned  ...    92 

Corn         225 

Cornell  experiments,  quoted  .  .   42 

54,80.82,  84,  135. 

146,  177,  178,  180  225,  228 

—  experience  with  radishes.  .   .  121 
Cornell,  sub-irrigation  at.  ...    68 

Cos  lettuce 4 

Cost  of  forcing-houses      .       .  .   46 

Cow  manure .   .    52 

Cresses 141,  142 

Cress,  mentioned 5 

—  summary  of 247 

—  temperature  for 5 

Crops  for  forcing,  category  of.     4 

Crosses  of  cucumbers 199 

Cucumber,  account  of 184 


Cucumber,  mentioned  .  2,  5,  7,   43. 
51,52,80.83 

—  prices  of .  .     4 

—  summary  of 248 

—  temperature  for 5,    50 

Cucumis  longus 192 

—  sativus  var.  Sikkimensis.  .   .  194 
Cut-flowers       and       vegetable 

growing i 

Cut-worms 53 

Cyanide  of  potassium  .  .       .   .    90 
Cyphomandra,  account  of  .      .241 

—  temperature  for 5 

Daintiness  of  product 3 

Damping-off 67,  84,  222 

Dandelion 143 

—  summary  of 249 

Denitrification .    .       62 

Diseases,  account  of 83 

Distance  from  market         .   .         8 

Drip 29,  30,   38 

Dreer's      "  Vegetables      under 

Glass,"  mentioned  ...     16,  n8 

Dropsy 84,  177 

Duke  of   Northumberland  cu- 
cumber  193 

Eggplant,  account  of 228 

—  mentioned 5,     6 

—  summary  of  .     249,250 

—  temperature  for  .         .         5,   50 
Eisen,  Gustav,  on  pep'no  .   .   .  149, 

150,  151 

Electric      light      for     forcing- 
houses  80,  94,  101 

England,  melon  in 204 

Erysiphe 200,  222 

Escarolle     .  .       4 

Even-span 18 

Failures,  cause  of. 3 

Fertilizers 52 

Fire,  risk  of 2 

Fir-tree  oil 176 

Flanagan,  Patrick,  and  the  cu- 
cumber   193 

"  Flora  Peruviana,"  quoted  .  .  149 


262 


Florida,  pepino  in  151 
—  tomatoes  from  7 
Flowers  and  vegetables  ....     7 
Flues  46 
Forcing  crops,  category  of  .  .     4 
Forrest  on  cucumbers  194 
Framework    24 
Frost,  risk  of  2 
Fruit-rot  of  tomato   177 
Fuel,  cost  of  9,    15 
Fumigation  86 
Fungi,  account  of.   ...          .83 
—  mentioned  .  .  .  23,  51,  59,  66,   67 
Galloway,  B.  T.,  on  lettuce  soils  96 
—  on  radishes  121 

Heating,  account  of  40 
—  cost  of  9-15 
—  item  2 
Help,  cost  of.  9-15 
Henderson,    Peter   &  Co.,  on 
cyphomandra  241 
Heterodera  radicicola  177 
Hooker,  Sir  J.  D.,  on  cucumber  194 
Hooker,  Sir  W.  J.,  on  cypho 
mandra  244 
Horse  dung  63 
Horticultural      Soc.,       Royal, 
quoted  209 
"  Hortus  Kewensis,"  quoted    .  150 

"  Garden  and  Forest,"  quoted.  132, 
146,  151,  180 
Garden-cress  142 
"Gardeners'        Magazine," 
quoted  .   .       193 
"  Gardeners'  Monthly,"  quoted, 
149,  151,  152 
Gardner,  John,  on  asparagus  .  132 

Hot-water  heating  ......    40 
House-blight  of  melons  ....  222 
Hughes'  fir-tree  oil  176 
Humphrey  on  datnping-off  ...    85 
Hydrant  water  65 
Hydrocyanic  gas  90 
Illinois,  heat  and  labor  in  .   .       13 
Importance  of  forcing  industry     7 

Gas  pipe  and  sub-irrigation.  71,    72 

Indian  corn.  ...       225 

cyphomandra  in  244 
Glass    36,  207 
Glazing  36 
Green-fly,  84,86,  89,  104,  111,125,200 
Green  corn  225 
"  Greenhouse     Construction," 
mentioned  .    .              .....    16 

—  mentioned  23,   51 
Irrigation  in  forcing-houses  .   .    68 
Ithaca,  climate  of.  113,211 
Jamaica,  Tree  Tomato  of  ...  241 
Jenkins,  E.  H.,  quoted  53 
"Journal  Obs.  Phys.,'1  quoted  .  149 
Journal      Royal      Hort.     Soc. 

—  on  sub-irrigation  .      ...  68,   77 
Grelck,  J.,  and  pepino  150 
Grenadilla   243 
Grubs       52 
Guatemala,  pepino  in  149 
Gulf  states,  eggplant  in  ....     6 
Gutters     24,   33 
Hare,  Thomas,  and  the  cucum- 
ber    193 
Hastings,  Gen.  Russell,  on  cu- 
cumber .  .                               .  .  196 

Kentucky,  heat  and  labor  in  .   .    15 
Kerman,  John,  on  tomato  ...  175 
Kerosene,  to  clean  houses.  .  84,   85 
Kinney  pump  68 
"Kitchen     and      Market  -Gar- 
den," quoted   196 
Knight,  Thomas    Andrew,    on 
melon          204 
Kiihn  on  manure  63 
Labor,  cost  of.  9-15 
—  item  .  .                                   .a 

Page 

Lapped  glass 38 

Leaf-burn  of  lettuce 106 

Leaf-mold 51 

Lean-to 18 

Lepidium  sativum  ...       ...  142 

Lettuce,  account  of. 93 

—  and  sub-irrigation  ...      72,   77 

—  Cos 4 

—  electric  light  on So 

—  fertilizing 61 

—  mentioned 5,  7,  8,  43,  46- 

68.  83,  140,  146,  153 

—  prices  of 4 

—  summary  of   ...      250,  251,  252 

—  temperature  for 5,   49 

Lima  bean  .   .       6 

Lime  whitewash 80 

Liquid  manure.  52 

Locations  for  vegetable  forcing     8 
Lodeman,  quoted  .      .   .  82,  86,  115, 

135,  180,  228 
London  Horticultural  Society, 

mentioned 193 

Lonsdale,  on  damping-off.   .  .    85 

Lye  to  clean  houses 85 

Maine     Experiment      Station, 

quoted 159,  164,  173 

Maize ...  225 

Management        of        forcing- 
houses    49 

Manure 50,  52,   62 

Marketing 3,     8 

Marrows 6 

Martius,  on  cyphomandra  .  .   .  244 
Massachusetts  bulletins,  quoted, 

35.  42,  53,   85 

—  heat  and  labor  in n 

Massey,  on  damping-off.  ....   85 
Maynard,  on  damping-off     .   .    85 

—  on  heating    .  .          42 

Mealy-bugs    .  .       .  84,  221,  237,  243 
Meehan,  on  damping-off..   .  .   85 
Melon,  account  of 204 

—  mentioned.   .  .     2,3,5,6,7,17, 

43.  5«i  S2,  53,65,67 


Page 

Melon  fruit,  Brazilian 243 

-  P^r 147 

—  shrub 147 

Melongena  laurifolia 149 

Mentha  viridis 143 

Michigan  bulletins,  quoted   .  .  42 

165.  241 

—  heat  and  labor  in 12 

Micrococcus  in  winter  blight     .182 
Mildew  of  lettuce 106 

—  mentioned 10,  83,   84 

Mills,  George,  on  melon.  .  .  .  209 
Minnesota  bulletins,  quoted  .   .   35 

—  heat  and  labor  in 13 

Mints,  account  of 141,  143 

Mint,  temperature  for 5 

Mites  .  .  84,  90,  176,  200,  221,  228,  237 

Mold,  leaf. 51 

Mortises 33 

Moss 67 

M'Phail,  quoted 192 

Munson,  W.  M.,   experiments 

with  tomatoes  .      .   .  159,  164,  173 

—  on  pepino 146,  152 

Muskmelon,  account  of  ...  204 

—  summary  of   ....  252,  253,  254 

—  temperature  for 5.5° 

—  see  also  Melon 

Mustard 143 

—  temperature  for 5 

Naphtha,  in  whitewash   ....    80 

Naudin,  on  cucumbers 194 

Nematode 84,  177 

New        Hampshire       bulletin, 

quoted 69 

New  Jersey,  heat  and  labor  in  14 

pepino  in 152 

Station,  quoted 54 

New  York  Exp.  Station,  quoted  99 

heat  and  labor  in  ....  1 1 

"  Nicholson's  Dictionary  of 

Gardening,"  quoted 196 

Night  man  10 

Nitrogen  and  forcing  crops  .  .  54 

—  availability  of 62 


264 


INDEX. 


Page 

Nitrogen,  loss  of 62 

(Edema          177 

Ohio  bulletins,  quoted  .   .  .53,  69, 
72,  97,  104 

—  Station,  sub-irrigation  at  .  .   68 

Oidium 200,  222 

Okra 225 

Onion,  account  of 144 

—  temperature  for 5 

Ontario,  heat  and  labor  in.  .   .    n 

—  tomatoes  in 157 

"  Orchard  and  Garden,"  quoted, 

M9,  151, 152 

Packing 3 

Parsley,  account  of. 142 

—  and  sub-irrigation 77 

—  summary  of 254 

—  temperature  for 5 

Pea,  account  of. 135 

—  electric  light  on 80 

—  mentioned 5,     6 

—  summary  of ........  254 

—temperature  for 5 

Peat 51 

Pennock,     C.    J.,    on     tomato 

growing 163,  167,  169 

Pennsylvania,  heat  and  labor 

in 13 

Pepino,  account  of 146 

—  de  la  tierra 150 

—  mentioned 6 

—  summary  of 254 

—  temperature  for 5 

Pepo 149 

Pepper,  account  of 238 

—  mentioned 5,     6 

—  prices  of 5 

—  summary  of        255 

—  temperature  for 5,   50 

Peronospora  gangliformis  .   .      106 

Peru.pepinoin 149 

Pie-plant 134 

Piping 16,  41,  43 

"  Plantes  Potageres."  quoted  .  192, 

194 


Page 
Plants  and  vegetables  ....        7 

Plate 30 

Pollination  .  .   .81, 162,  195,  214,  236 

Potato 146 

Pot-herbs,  account  of. 141 

Prices  of  hothouse  vegetables  .     4 

Purlines.  .  ., 26 

Putty,  recipe  for 37 

Radish,  account  of 115 

—  electric  light  on 80 

—  mentioned 5,     6 

—  summary  of 255,  256 

—  temperature  for 5,   49 

Radishes  and  sub-irrigation  .   .    77 

Rafters 26 

Rain  water 68 

Rane,  F.  W.,  on  electric  light.  .   80 

on  sub-irrigation,  69, 71 , 77,   78 

Rawson,   W.   W.,   on   electric 

light 80 

on  lettuce  growing- .  .  102, 104 

Red  pepper:  See  Pepper. 
Red  spiders  (see  Mites)  84,  228,  237 
"  Revue  Horticole,'"  quoted.  .  189 
Rhubarb,  account  of ....  127,  134 

—  mentioned 7 

—  summary  of 256 

—  temperature  for  .  .  .  .  5,  49,  50 

Ridge-pole 33 

Risks  in  forcing  business.  ...     2 

Romain  salad 4 

Roofs 17, 18,    24 

Root  crops 145 

Root-galls 79,  84,  87,  177 

Rose-leaf  extract  of  tobacco  .   .   89 

Rotation  of  crops 7 

Rot  of  lettuce 105 

—  of  tomato 177 

Rousignon,  on  pepino 151 

Royal  Hort.  Soc.,  quoted.  .   .    .  209 
Ruiz  and  Pavon,  on  pepino  .   .  149 
"  Rural  New-Yorker,"  quoted    144 

Rust  of  tomato 52,  177 

Sage 143 

Salads,  account  of 141 


INDEX. 


Page 
Salad    Romain                                   A 

Sulphuric  acid  ....                ?1^ 

Sun-scald  ...                                79 

Sash  for  ventilating                       35 

Taft,  on  cost  of  houses                 46 

Scott,  William,  on  asparagus      132 

—  on  heating  .                                 42 

Sea-kale  4,128 
Sewer  pipe  and  sub-irrigation  .    70 

Taft's  "Greenhouse  Construc- 
tion," mentioned     16 

Seymour,  on  damping-off.  ...    85 
Shading,  account  of  78 
Shed  roofs  17,    18 
Shepherd,    Theodosia    B      on 

Tear-drops  in  glass          ....  207 
Temperatures  for  various  crops    5, 

49 
Tenons  33 

cyphomandra  243 

Tetranychus  bimaculatus   90 

Shipping  3,     3 
Short-span-to-the-south    ...       23 
Side-hill  houses                               24 

176,  221 
Thoreau,  on  melon  205 

Sikkim  cucumber  194 
Sion  House,  cucumber  193 
Soil  and  forcing  8 
Soils,  account  of.  ....  50,  66,   96 

Tiles  and  sub-irrigation  ....   70 
Tobacco  extract  89 
—  for  fumigation  .  .         87.  104,  in 
Tomato,  account  of.  153 

—  Guatemalense  147 
—  Melongena  151 
—  muricatum   150 

—  fertilizers  for  53 
—  mentioned  ...      2,  3,  5,  7,  8,  17, 
43,  44,  52,  53,  67,  184 
—  prices  of  4 

in  243 

—  summary  of.  .   .  256,  257,  2;8,  259 
—  temperature  for  5    50 

Spiders,  red  84,  228,  237 
Spinach  142 
—  and  sub-irrigation  77 
—  electric  light  on  80 

Tomatoes  and  sub-irrigation  .  .    77 
Top  burn  of  lettuce  106 
Transportation  facilities  ....     8 
Tree  tomato  of  Jamaica  ....  241 
Turnip,  account  of  145 

—  summary  of  256 
—  temperature  for  5 
Spraying  for  insects  and  dis- 
eases     84 

Tweedie,  and  the  cyphomandra  243 
Uneven-span  18,   36 
Van  Fleet,  W.,  on  onions  .  .  .  144 
"  Vegetable     Forcing,"     men- 

tioned    16,  92 

Squashes  6,  225 
Stable  manure  50,  52,  62 

"  Vegetables     under      Glass," 
mentioned    16,  118 
Ventilating,  account  of  ....    78 

Vilmorin,  quoted  192,  194 

String  beans  .  .       -6,  225 
Sturtevant,  quoted    ....  192,  194 
Sub-irrigation  68 

Violets,  fumigating  90 
Wagner  on  manure  62,   63 
Walker,  C.  D.,  on  electric  cur- 

266 


Page 

Walks 16,  17,    24 

Walls 16,   33 

Warm  plants 4,   50 

Washington    experience    with 
radishes 121 

—  heat  and  labor  in 15 

Water-cress 141 

Water  heating 40 

Watering,  account  of. 65 

—  mentioned 9,    50 

Watermelon 205 


Paie 

Watson,  on  damping-off ....   85 
West  Virginia  Station  and  sub- 
irrigation  69,    71 

electric  light  at So 

White  Spine  cucumbers  ....  201 

Whitewash 80 

Winkler's    "  Vegetable     Forc- 
ing," mentioned •  16,    93 

Winter  blight 180 

Wire-worms     52 


RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES 

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organizations  and  constitutional  documents,  by-laws,  and  general 
advice  as  to  the  administration  of  the  associations  or  societies  are 
all  considered.  The  author  describes  at  some  length  the  most  famous 
organizations,  such  as  those  which  are  handling  citrus  fruits  in  Cali- 
fornia, the  farmers'  grain  elevators  systems,  and  the  present  coopera- 
tion in  the  creamery  and  butter  business.  It  is,  in  other  words,  a 
practical  guide  for  those  who  desire  to  organize  cooperative  socie- 
ties and  who  wish  to  escape  the  usual  pitfalls. 

Farm  Forestry 

By  E.  G.  CHEYNEY 

Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo.   Preparing 

This  book  deals  with  the  place  of  the  woodlot  or  farm  forest  in 
the  scheme  of  farming,  with  the  planting,  care,  and  harvesting  of 
timber  on  lands,  with  the  different  species  of  trees  that  may  be  used, 
their  relations  or  associations  in  a  forest  plantation,  the  rate  of 
growth,  the  profits  to  be  expected  and  the  principal  difficulties  that 
are  usually  encountered.  It  is  profusely  illustrated. 

Forage  Crops  for  the  South 

By  S.  M.  TRACY 

Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo.   Preparing 

Professor  Tracy  has  long  experience  in  southern  agriculture,  both 
in  application  and  in  teaching.  He  was  formerly  Professor  of  Agri- 
culture in  the  Mississippi  Agricultural  College,  and  now  conducts  a 
branch  station  for  arm  for  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. He  is  a  botanist  of  note,  and  has  traveled  extensively  in 
the  South  as  a  collector.  His  book  is  not  only  authentic,  but  practical. 
In  it  is  contained  a  discussion  of  all  kinds  of  plants  and  crops  adapted 
to  the  Southern  States  for  fodder,  soiling,  pasturing,  and  hay.  The 
text  is  abundantly  illustrated. 

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RURAL   SCIENCE   SERIES— Continued 

Fruit  Insects 

By  M.  V.  SLINGERLAND  and  C.  R.  CROSBY 

New  edition.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo.   Preparing 

This  is  a  practical  account  of  the  principal  insects  in  this  country 
which  attack  the  different  kinds  of  fruits — tree-fruits,  small  fruits, 
cranberries,  grapes,  and  the  Like.  It  presents  a  full  but  brief  outline 
life  history  of  the  leading  insects  together  with  the  methods  of 
control. 

Milk  and  Its  Products 

By  HENRY  H.  WING,  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry  in  Cornell 
University. 

New  Revised  Edition,  with  new  illustrations. 
Cloth,  12mo,  $1.50  net 

The  revolution  in  dairy  practice,  brought  about  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  centrifugal  cream  separator  and  the  Babcock  test  for 
fat,  by  a  more  definite  knowledge  regarding  the  various  fermenta- 
tions that  so  greatly  influence  milk  and  the  manufacture  of  its 
products,  have  demanded  the  publication  of  a  book  that  shall  give 
to  the  dairyman,  and  particularly  to  the  dairy  student,  in  simple, 
concise  form,  the  principles  underlying  modern  dairy  practice.  Such 
has  been  Professor  Wing's  purpose  in  this  work.  This  is  not  a  new 
edition  of  the  author's  very  successful  volume  published  under  the 
same  title  many  years  ago;  it  is,  in  reality,  an  entirely  new  book, 
having  been  wholly  reset  and  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  new  matter, 
both  text  and  illustrations.  The  author's  aim  has  been  at  all  times 
to  give  the  present  state  of  knowledge  as  supported  by  the  weight 
of  evidence  and  the  opinions  of  those  whose  authority  is  highest. 


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NEWEST  ADDITIONS  TO  THE  RURAL  TEXT-BOOK  SERIES 

Edited  by  Professor  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Formerly  Director  of  the  New  York  State  School  of  Agriculture  at 

Cornell  University 


Manures  and  Fertilizers 


By  H.  J.  WHEELER,  Ph.D..  D.Sc.,  Formerly  Director  of  the 
Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station. 

Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.   Preparing 

The  clear  and  unusually  full  discussion  of  the  practical  utilization  of  manures 
and  fertilizers  of  all  kinds,  and  of  their  relations  to  the  plant  and  to  the  soil,  makes 
this  book  not  only  an  excellent  text  for  college  students,  but  also  one  which  will  be 
generally  welcomed  by  all  up-to-date  agriculturists.  All  the  animal  manures,  litter 
and  waste  nitrogeneous  materials  of  every  sort  are  discussed.  A  helpful  feature  for 
the  student  is  the  extended  treatment  of  the  availability  of  organic  nitrogen  and  of 
the  organisms  contained  in  barnyard  manure  wuich  give  rise  to  the  various  fer- 
mentations taking  place  therein.  The  well-known  and  also  the  new,  nitrogenous 
manures  such  as  calcium  cyanamid  and  calcium  nitrate,  are  considered  in  detail. 
The  chapters  devoted  to  the  potash  salts,  phosphates,  lime,  jragnesia,  soda,  gyp- 
sum, iron,  and  manganese  are  exceptionally  complete,  and  chlorin,  sulfur,  silica 
carbon  disulfid,  toluene,  and  other  substances  exerting  catalytic  and  other  effects 
are  described.  Much  of  the  material  in  this  book,  which  will  be  new  to  students  and 
other  readers,  has  suggested  itself  to  the  author  in  the  course  of  twenty-two  years 
of  continuous  research. 

Corn  Crops 

By  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  Professor  of  Farm   Crops  in   the 

College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University. 

Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo,  SI. 60  net 

This  is  a  text-book  on  corn  and  the  sorghum  crops,  including  the  grain  sorghums, 
the  sweet  sorghums  for  syrup  or  forage,  and  the  broom  corns.  In  it  plant  structures, 
physiology,  and  the  other  technical  phases  of  the  subject  are  separated  from  the 
more  practical  phases  which  might  be  classed  as  cultural  methods.  Hence,  the 
entire  book  is  adapted  to  use  as  a  text  in  an  advanced  course,  and  the  treatment 
of  cultural  methods  is  adapted  to  use  in  more  elementary  courses.  The  book  is  also 
an  excellent  handbook  for  farmers  and  others  interested  in  the  production  or  hand- 
ling of  corn  or  sorghums. 

Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools 

By  MERR1TT  W.  HARPER,  Assistant   Professor  of   Animal 
Husbandry  in  the  New  York  State  College. 

Illustrated.    Cloth,  ISmo,  tl.Jfl  net 

This  is  a  simple,  concrete  presentation  of  the  essential  facts  concerning  farm 
animals,  adapted  for  use  in  secondary  schools. 

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WarreiTs  Elements  of  Agriculture 

By  G.F.  WARREN,  Professor  of  Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops, 
New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University. 

Cloth,  12mo,  456  pages,  $1.10  net 

Written  by  Professor  G.  F.  Warren,  who  is  in  charge  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops  in  the  New  York  State 
College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University,  an  authority  on  questions 
pertaining  to  practical  agriculture. 

Professor  Warren  is,  moreover,  a  farmer.  He  grew  up  on  a  farm  in 
the  middle  West  and  is  living  at  the  present  time  on  a  farm  of  three 
hundred  and  eighteen  acres,  which  he  supervises  in  connection  with  his 
work  at  the  University. 

The  "Elements  of  Agriculture"  is  a  text  that  does  not  "talk  down" 
to  the  pupil.  It  gives  agriculture  rank  beside  physics,  mathematics,  and 
the  languages  as  a  dignified  subject  for  the  course  of  study. 

In  Warren's  "Elements  of  Agriculture"  there  is  no  waste  space.  It  is 
written  with  the  ease  that  characterizes  a  writer  at  home  in  his  subject, 
and  it  is  written  in  a  style  pedagogically  correct.  The  author  has  been  a 
teacher  of  high-school  boys  and  girls  and  knows  how  to  present  his  sub- 
ject to  them. 

Experts  in  the  teaching  of  agriculture  the  country  over  have  been 
unanimous  in  praise  of  the  text. 
Mr.  J.  E.  BLAIR,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Corsicana,  Texas. 

"An  examination  of  Warren's  'Elements  of  Agriculture'  convinces  me 
that  it  is  a  book  of  uncommon  merit  for  secondary  schools  as  well  as  for 
the  private  student.    It  is  thoroughly  scientific  in  matter,  and  is  written 
in  an  attractive  style,  that  cannot  fail  to  please  as  well  as  instruct." 
Supt.  E.  S.  SMITH,  Whiting,  Iowa. 

"I  am  very  much  pleased  with  Warren's  'Elements  of  Agriculture.' 
In  my  opinion  it  is  the  only  book  on  the  market  that  presents  the  work 
of  agriculture  suitably  for  high  schools;  too  many  books  are  too  simple 
and  do  not  give  enough  work;  a  book  for  high  schools  must  be  more  than 
a  primer." 

Material  and  Methods  in  High  School 
Agriculture 

By  WILLIAM  GRANVILLE  HUMMEL,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor  of  Agricultural  Education,  University  of  California,  and  Bertha 
Royce  Hummel,  B.  L.  S. 

Illustrated.   120  pages,  $1.25  net 

This  work  meets  the  needs  of  persons  interested  in  the  introduction 
or  in  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  high  schools  of  towns,  cities,  or  rural 
communities,  where  large  numbers  of  students  are  drawn  from  the 
farming  population,  or  where  the  prosperity  of  the  high-school  com- 
munity is  largely  dependent  upon  agriculture. 

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Farm  Management 

By  G.  F.  WARREN,  Ph.D.,    Professor   of   Farm    Management, 
New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University. 

Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo,  xx+592  pages,  $1.75  net 

"Farm  Management  is  the  study  of  the  business  principles  in 
farming.  It  may  be  denned  as  the  science  of  the  organization  and 
management  of  a  farm  enterprise  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
greatest  continuous  profit. 

"Successful  farming  requires  good  judgment  in  choosing  a  farm 
and  in  deciding  on  a  type  of  farming.  It  demands  clear  business 
organization  and  management  for  the  efficient  use  of  capital,  labor, 
horses,  and  machinery.  It  requires  good  judgment  in  buying  and 
selling. 

"The  change  from  cheap  land,  hand  tools,  and  farming  to  raise 
one's  own  food  and  clothing,  to  farming  as  a  commercial  under- 
taking has  come  upon  us  so  suddenly  that  business  principles  are 
not  always  well  understood  by  farmers.  Nor  do  those  who  under- 
stand the  application  of  such  principles  to  city  conditions  often 
know  how  to  apply  them  on  the  farm. 

"Long  ages  of  experience  and  a  generation  of  scientific  research 
have  resulted  in  a  fund  of  popular  knowledge  on  how  to  raise  crops 
and  animals.  But  there  is  less  background  of  tradition  concerning 
business  methods  on  the  farm,  and  colleges  have  given  little  atten- 
tion to  this  kind  of  problem.  The  success  of  the  individual  farmer 
is  as  much  dependent  on  the  application  of  business  principles  as  it 
is  on  crop  yields  and  production  of  animals. 

"The  best  way  to  find  out  what  methods  of  farm  organization 
and  management  are  most  successful  is  to  study  the  methods  now 
used  and  the  profits  secured  on  large  numbers  of  farms,  and  deter- 
mine how  the  more  successful  ones  differ  from  the  less  successful,  and 
find  to  which  of  the  differences  the  success  is  due.  After  such  prin- 
ciples are  found,  they  need  to  be  tested  by  use  in  reorganizing  farms. 

"The  conclusions  in  this  book  are  based  on  investigations  of  the 
kind  given  above,  and  on  cost  accounts,  census  data,  travel  and 
study  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States  and  experience  in 
farming.  It  is  hoped  that  the  conclusions  may  be  of  use  to  farmers 
and  students." — Preface. 


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AN    IMPORTANT  CYCLOPEDIA 

The   Standard  Cyclopedia   of   Horticulture 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 

With  over  4,000  illustrations,  24  colored  plates. 
Six  volumes.  Preparing. 

This  monumental  work  is  introduced  by  nearly  200  pages  of 
prefatory  matter,  comprising  preface,  a  general  introductory 
account  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  as  a  whole,  describing  the  fam- 
ilies that  are  most  important  in  a  horticultural  way,  and  also  a  key 
to  all  the  leading  genera  that  are  described  in  the  work.  This  key 
will  enable  the  student  to  trace  out  the  plant  and  refer  it  to  its 
proper  genus;  by  the  aid  of  the  generic  key  he  can  run  it  down  to 
its  species. 

Special  effort  has  been  made  to  include  the  leading  plants  culti- 
vated in  the  tropics,  inasmuch  as  the  scattered  island  territories  of 
the  United  States  are  now  bringing  our  people  in  touch  with  tropical 
conditions.  Careful  treatment  has  been  given  to  such  articles  as 
Insects,  Diseases,  Greenhouses,  Conservatories,  Fertilizers,  Alpine 
Gardening,  Vegetable-Growing,  The  Cut-Flower  Interests,  Storage 
and  Handling  of  Horticultural  Products,  The  Planting  of  Trees  and 
Shrubs,  Pruning,  Cost-Accounting  in  Horticultural  Operations. 
Many  lists  of  plants  for  special  purposes  and  also  extensive  planting 
lists  have  been  included. 

With  the  elaborate  introductory  part,  which  is  well  illustrated  by 
diagrams  representing  the  structure  of  the  different  families,  and  with 
the  extended  accounts  of  the  different  genera,  the  work  will  be  in 
effect  a  great  Cyclopedia  of  botany  as  well  as  of  horticulture. 

The  contributors  include  the  very  best  botanists  and  cultivators 
in  the  country. 


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UCSB   L1BRAR1 


